pilgrims from Persia must take on their way to the sacred cities. | is able to obtain credit. They are also the dealers in antiquities, It also possesses important shrines of its own which cause many pilgrims to linger there, and wealthy Indians not infrequently choose Bagdad as a suitable spot in which to end their days in the odour of sanctity. There has also sprung up of late years considerable direct trade between the European and American markets and Bagdad, and several foreign houses, especially English, have established themselves there. Germany also has invaded this market.

The staple articles of export are hides, wool and dates. The export trade of Bagdad amounts to about £750,000 annually, and the import trade to about £2,000,000. The imports consist of oil, cheap cottons, shoes and other similar goods, which are taking the place of the picturesque native manufactures. Even the Bedouin Arabs wear headdresses of cheap European cotton stuff purchased in Bagdad or thereabouts, while the common water vessels throughout the country are five-gallon petroleum tins, which also furnish metal for the manufacture of various utensils in the native bazaars.

both genuine and fraudulent. Next to them in enterprise and prosperity are the Persians. The porters of the town are all Kurds, the river-men Chaldaean Christians. Every nation retains its peculiar dress. The characteristic, but by no means attractive, street dress of the Moslem women of the better class comprises a black horse-hair visor completely covering the face and projecting like an enormous beak, the nether extremities being encased in yellow boots reaching to the knee and fully displayed by the method of draping the garments in front.

Bagdad is governed by a pasha, assisted by a council. The pasha and the higher officials in general come from Constantinople, but a very large portion of the other Turkish officials seem to come from the town of Kerkuk. They constitute a class quite distinct from the native Arab population, and they and the Turkish government in general are intensely unpopular among the Arabs, an unpopularity increased by their religious differences, the Arabs being as a rule Shi'ites, the Turks Sunnites. Besides the court of superior officers, which assists the pasha in the general administration of the province, there is also a mejlis or mixed tribunal for the settlement of municipal and commercial affairs, to which both Christian and Jewish merchants are admitted. Besides these, there are the religious heads of the community, especially the nakib and Jewish high priest, who possess an undefined and extensive authority in their own communities. The Jewish chief priest may be said to be the successor of the exilarch or resh galutha of the earlier period.

Bagdad is in communication with Europe by means of two lines of telegraph, one British and one Turkish, and two postal services. There is a British consul-general, who is also political agent to the Indian government. His state is second only to that of the British ambassador at Constantinople. Besides the gunboat in the river, he has a guard of sepoys, and there is an Indian post-office in the residency. Formerly the British government maintained a camel-post across the desert to Damascus. This was abandoned about 1880 when the Turks established a History. There are in or near Bagdad a few remains of a similar service. By means of the Turkish camel-post letters period antedating Islam, the most conspicuous of which are the reached Damascus in nine days. There is also a Russian consul- ruins of the palace of Chosrocs at Ctesiphon or Madain, about general at Bagdad, and French, Austrian and American consuls. 15 m. below Bagdad on the cast side of the river. Almost The Euphrates Valley (or Bagdad) railway scheme, which equally conspicuous, and a landmark through the whole region, had previously been discussed, was brought forward prominently is the ruin called Akerkuf, in the desert, about 9 m. westin 1899, and Russian proposals to undertake it were rejected. ward of Bagdad. This consists of a huge tower of unburned British proposals followed, but were opposed by the Germans, brick resting on a small hill of debris, the whole rising to a height who, as controlling the line to Konia in Asia Minor, claimed of 100 ft. or more above the plain, in the centre of a network of preference in the matter. A provisional convention was granted ancient canals. Inscribed bricks found in the neighbourhood to a German company by the Porte, and an iradé was obtained seem to connect this ruin with Kurigalzu, king of Babylon about in 1902. In 1903 there was considerable discussion as to the 1300 B.C. Under substantially its present name, Akukafa, it is placing of the line under international control, and the question mentioned as a place of importance in connexion with the canals arcused special interest in England in view of the short route as late as the Abbasid caliphate. Within the limits of the city which the line would provide to India, in connexion with fast itself, on the west bank of the Tigris, are the remains of a quay, steamship services in the Mediterranean and the Persian Gulf. first observed by Sir Henry Rawlinson, at a period of low water, It was decided by the British government that the proposals in 1849, built of bricks laid in bitumen, and bearing an inscription made to this effect did not offer sufficient security. The of Nebuchadrezzar, king of Babylon. Baghdadu was an ancient financial arrangement as finally agreed upon was that German Babylonian city, dating back perhaps as far as 2000 B.C., the financiers should control 40% of the capital of the line; French name occurring in lists in the library of Assur-bani-pal. It is also (through the Imperial Ottoman Bank), 30%; Austrian, Swiss, mentioned on the Michaux stone, found on the Tigris near the Italian and Turkish, 20%; and the Anatolian Railway Company, site of the present city, and dating from the time of Tiglath10%. In 1904 the line was completed from Konia through Pileser I. (1100 B.C.) The quay of Nebuchadrezzar, mentioned Eregli to Bulgurli. In 1908 an iradé sanctioned the extension above, establishes the fact that this ancient city of Baghdadu across the Taurus to Adana, and so to Helif near Mardin (522 m.). was located on the site of western or old Bagdad (see further The population of Bagdad is estimated variously from 70,000 under CALIPHATE: Abbasids, sections 2 foli.). References in to 200,000; perhaps halfway between may represent approxi- the Jewish Talmud show that this city still continued to exist mately the reality. More than two-thirds of the population are at and after the commencement of our era; but according to Moslems, mostly Shi'as, with the exception of the official classes. Arabian writers, at the time when the Arab city of Bagdad was There are about 34,000 Jews occupying a quarter of their own founded by the caliph Mansur, there was nothing on that site in the north-western part of the city; while in a neighbouring except an old convent. One may venture to doubt the literal quarter dwell upwards of 6000 Christians, chiefly so-called accuracy of this statement. It is clear that the ancient name, at Chaldaeans or Nestorians. The Carmelites maintain a mission least, still held firm possession of the site and was hence inherited in Bagdad, as does also the (English) Church Missionary Society. by the new city. The Jews are the only part of the population who are provided with schools. A school for boys was established by the Alliance Israelite in 1865, and one for girls in 1899. Besides these, there is also an apprentice school for industrial training.

The Jews constitute the wealthiest and most intelligent portion of the population. A large part of the foreign trade is in their hands, and at the season of the sheep-shearing their agents and representatives are found everywhere among the Bedouins and Madan Arabs of the interior, purchasing the wool and selling various commodities in return. They are the bankers of the country, and it is through their communications that the traveller

The Arab city, the old or round city of Bagdad, was founded by the caliph Mansur of the Abbasid dynasty on the west side of the Tigris just north of the Isa canal in A.D. 762. It was a mile in diameter, built in concentric circles, with the mosque and palace of the caliph in the centre, and had four gates toward the four points of the compass. It grew with great rapidity. The suburb of Rusafa, on the eastern bank, sprang up almost immediately, and after the siege and capture of the round city by Mamun, in 814, this became the most important part of the capital. The period of the greatest prosperity of Bagdad was the period from its foundation until the death of Mamun, the

successor of Harun, in 833. During this period the city, including | his descendants reigned in Bagdad until Shah Ismail I., the both sides of the river, was 5 m. across within the walls, and it is said to have had a population of 2,000,000 souls. In literature, art and science, it divided the supremacy of the world with Cordova; in commerce and wealth it far surpassed that city. How its splendour impressed the imagination may be seen from the stories of the Arabian Nights. It was the religious capital of all Islam, and the political capital of the greater part of it, at a time when Islam bore the same relation to civilization which Christendom does to-day. As in Spanish Islam, so in the lands of the eastern caliphate, the Jews were treated relatively with favour. The seat of the exilarch or resh galutha was transferred from Pumbedita (Pumbeditha or Pombeditha) in Babylonia to Bagdad, which thus became the capital of oriental Judaism; from then to the present day the Jews have played no mean part in Bagdad.

connexion he was brought into the inside of the political life | for other characteristics besides those of the scientific observer, of the time. He was an intimate friend of Sir George Cornewall but observation always comes to the front, as in the account Lewis, and was afterwards in constant communication with many of Ricardo, whom Bagehot describes as often, when he is most of the political chiefs, especially with Gladstone, Robert Lowe theoretical, really describing what a first-rate man of business and Grant Duff, and with the permanent heads of the great would do and think in actual transactions. The observation, departments of state. In the city in the same way he was of course, is that of a type of business man in the city to which intimate with the governor and directors of the Bank of England, Ricardo as well as Bagehot belonged, though Ricardo could and with leading magnates in the banking and commercial | hardly look at it from the outside as Bagehot was able to do. world; while his connexion with the Political Economy Club Bagehot had great city, political and literary influence, to brought him into contact in another way with both city and which all his activities contributed, and much of his influence politics. His active life in business and politics, however, was was lasting. In politics and economics especially his habit of not of so absorbing a kind as to prevent his real devotion to scientific observation affected the tone of discussion, and both literature, but the literature largely grew out of his activities, the English constitution and the money market have been better and of no one can it be said more truly than of Bagehot that the understood generally because he wrote and talked and diffused atmosphere in which he lived gave tone and colour and direction his ideas in every possible way. He was unsuccessful in two or to his studies, one thing of course acting and reacting on another. three attempts to enter parliament, but he had the influence of The special note of his books, apart from his remarkable gift of far more than an ordinary member, as director of the Economist conversational epigrammatic style, which gives a peculiar zest and as the adviser behind the scenes of the ministers and perto the writing, is the quality of scientific dispassionate description manent heads of departments who consulted him. His death, of matters which were hardly thought of previously as subjects on the 24th of March 1877, occurred at Langport very suddenly, of scientific study. This is specially the case with the two books when he was in the fullest mental vigour and might have looked which perhaps brought him the most reputation, The English forward to the accomplishment of much additional work and the Constitution (1867) and Lombard Street (1873). They are both exercise of even wider influence. books of observation and description. The English constitution It is impossible to give a full idea of the brightness and life is described, not from law books and as a lawyer would describe of Bagehot's conversation, although the conversational style it, but from the actual working, as Bagehot himself had witnessed of his writing may help those who did not know him personit, in his contact with ministers and the heads of governmentally to understand it. With winged words he would transfix a departments, and with the life of the society in which the fallacy or stamp a true idea so that it could not be forgotten. politicians moved. The true springs and method of action are He was certainly greater than his books and always full of ideas. consequently described with a vivid freshness which gives the The present writer recalls two notions he had, not for writing book a wonderful charm, and makes it really a new departure new books himself, but as something that might be done. One in the study of politics. It is the same with Lombard Street. The was that there might be a history of recent politics with new money market is there pictured as it really was in 1850-1870, lights if some one were to do it who knew the family connexions and as Bagehot saw it with philosophic eyes. Beginning with and history of English politicians. This was apropos of the the sentence," The objects which you see in Lombard Street are passage of a certain bill through parliament, when the head of the Bank of England, the joint stock banks, the private banks the department in the House of Commons failed and the manageand the discount houses," he describes briefly and clearly the ment of the measure was taken by the chancellor of the exchequer respective functions of these different bodies in the organism himself, a relative of the permanent head of the department of the city, according to his own close observation as a banker concerned, who was thus able to carry his own ideas in legislation himself, knowing the ways and thoughts of the men he describes, notwithstanding the failure of his political chief. Another book and as a man of business likewise in other ways, knowing at first he wished to see written was an account of the differences in hand the relation of banking to the trade and commerce of the the administrative systems of England and Scotland, by which country. Lombard Street is perhaps a riper work than The English he had been greatly impressed, the differences not being in Constitution, as its foundation was really laid in 1858 in a series detail, but in fundamental idea and in form, so that no judicial of articles which Bagchot then wrote in the Economist, though or other officers in the one were represented in the other by it was not published till the early 'seventies, after it had been corresponding functionaries. Many other illustrations might twice rewritten and revised with infinite labour and care. be given of his fulness of ideas which helped to make him an Lombard Street, like The English Constitution in political studies, ideal editor. Reference must also be made to the assistance is thus a new departure in economic and financial studies, apply- which Bagehot gave as a journalist to the study of statistics. ing the same sort of keen observation which Adam Smith used From the manipulation of figures he was most averse, and he in the analysis of business generally to the special business of rather boasted that he was unable to add up. But he was a banking and finance in the complex modern world. It is, perhaps, most excellent mathematician, and no one could be so careful not going too far to say that the whole theory of a one-reserve as he was about the logic of the figures got together for his system of banking and how to work it, and of the practical articles, which he always most carefully scrutinized. He would means of fixing an "apprehension minimum" below which the frequently point out that his figures were illustrative merely, reserve should not fall, originated in Lombard Street and the and did not by themselves establish an argument. He was articles which were the foundation of it; and the subsequent always anxious, again, to impress on those about him that a conduct of banking in England and throughout the world has subject could not be studied with the help of figures and accounts been infinitely better and safer in consequence. A like note is alone. Whether it was insurance, or banking, or underwriting, also struck in Physics and Politics (1869), which is a description of or shipowning, he insisted that some one who knew the business the evolution of communities of men. The materials here are should see the writing before it was published. Knowing so derived mainly from books, the surface to be observed being many departments of business from actual experience, he was so extensive, but the attitude is precisely the same, that of a a host in himself as referee, but when in doubt he would always scientific observer. To a certain extent the Physics and Politics consult some one who knew the facts; and he used his great had even a more remarkable influence on opinion, at least on influence so well that in subsequent years it inspired indirectly foreign opinion, than The English Constitution or Lombard Street. not a few who were hardly aware of his claims to be a statistician It caught on" as a development of the theory of evolution at all. (R. GN.) in a new direction, and Darwin himself was greatly interested, while one of the pleasures of Bagehot's later years was to receive a translation of the book into the Russian language. In Literary Studier (1879) and Economic Studies (1880), published after his death, there is more scope than in the books already mentioned

BAGELKHAND, or BAGHELKHAND, a tract of country in central India, occupied by a collection of native states. The Bagelkhand agency is under the political superintendence of the governor-general's agent for central India, and under the direct jurisdiction of a political agent who is also superintendent

of the Rewa state, residing ordinarily at Sutna or Rewa. The agency consists of Rewa state and eleven minor states and estates, of which the more important are Maihar, Nagode and Sohawal. The total area is 14,323 sq. m., and the population in 1901 was 1,555,024, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade, due to the results of famine. The rainfall was very deficient in 1895-1897, causing famine in 1897; and in 1899-1900 there was drought in some sections. The agency was established in March 1871. Until that date Bagelkhand was under the Bundelkhand agency, with which it is geographically and historically connected; a general description of the country will be found under that heading. According to Wilson, in his Glossary of Indian Terms, the Baghelas, who give their name to this tract of country, are a branch of the Sisodhyia Rajputs who migrated eastward and once ruled in Gujarat.

manner and versatility, gained him a place in the best society. This sudden success received a blow in 1789, when a very poor opera, Holge Danske, which he had produced, was received with mockery and a reaction against him set in. He left Denmark in a rage and spent the next years in Germany, France and Switzerland. He married at Berne in 1790, began to write in German and published in that language his next poem, Alpenlied. In the winter of the same year he returned to his mother-country, bringing with him as a peace-offering his fine descriptive poem, the Labyrinth, in Danish, and was received with unbounded homage. The next twenty years were spent in incessant restless wanderings over the north of Europe, Paris latterly becoming his nominal home. He continued to publish volumes alternately in Danish and German. Of the latter the most important was the idyllic epos in hexameters called Parthenais (1803). In 1806 he returned to Copenhagen to find the young Öhlenschläger installed as the great poct of the day, and he himself beginning to lose his previously unbounded popularity. Until 1820 he resided in Copenhagen, in almost unceasing literary feud with some one or other, abusing and being abused, the most important feature of the whole being Baggesen's determination not to allow Öhlenschläger to be considered a greater poet than himself. He then left Denmark for the last time and went back to his beloved Paris, where he lost his second wife and youngest child in 1822, and after the miscries of an imprisonment for debt, fell at last into a state of hopeless melancholy madness. In 1826, having slightly recovered, he wished to see Denmark once more, but died in the freemasons' hospital at Hamburg on his way, on the 3rd of October, and was buried at Kiel. His manysided talents achieved success in all forms of writing, but his domestic, philosophical and critical works have long ceased to occupy attention. A little more power of restraining his egotism and passion would have made him one of the wittiest and keenest of modern satirists, and his comic poems are deathless. The Danish literature owes Baggesen a great debt for the firm

BAGGARA ("Cowherds"), African "Arabs" of Semitic origin, so called because they are great cattle owners and breeders. They occupy the country west of the White Nile between the Shilluk territory and Dar Nuba, being found principally in Kordofan. They are true nomad Arabs, having intermarried little with the Nuba, and have preserved most of their national characteristics. The date of their arrival in the Sudan is uncertain: they appear to have drifted up the Nile valley and to have dispossessed the original Nuba population. A purely pastoral people, they move from pasture to pasture, as food becomes deficient. The true Baggāra tribesmen employ oxen as saddle and pack animals, carry no shield, and though many possess firearms the customary weapons are lance and sword. They have always had the reputation of being resolute fighters. Engaged from the earliest times in the slave trade, they were among the first, as they were certainly the most fervent, supporters of the mahdi when he rose in revolt against the Egyptians (1882). They constituted his real fighting force, and to their fanatical courage his victories were due. Their decision to follow him out of their own country to Khartum brought about the fall of that city. The mahdi's successor, the khalifa Ab-ness, polish and form which he introduced into it-his style dullah, was a Baggara, and throughout his rule the tribe held the first place in his favour. They have been described as "men who look the fiends they really are-of most sinister expression, with murder and every crime speaking from their savage eyes. Courage is their only good quality." They are famous, too, as hunters of big game, attacking even elephants with sword and spear. G. A. Schweinfurth declares them the best-looking of the Nile nomads, and the men are types of physical beauty, with fine heads, erect athletic bodies and sinewy limbs. There is little that is Semitic in their appearance. Their skins vary in colour from a dark red-brown to a deep black; but their features are regular and free of negro characteristics. In mental power they are much superior to the indigenous races around them. They have a passion for fine clothes and ornaments, tricking themselves out with glass trinkets, rings and articles of ivory and horn. Their mode of hair-dressing (mop-fashion) earned them, in common with the Hadendoa, the name of "Fuzzy-wuzzies among the British soldiers in the campaigns of 1884-98.

See G. A. Schweinfurth, Heart of Africa (1874); Sir F. R. Wingate, Mahdism and the Egyptian Sudan (1891), Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, edited by Count Gleichen (1905); A. H. Keane, Ethnology of the Egyptian Sudan (1884).

BAGGESEN, JENS IMMANUEL (1764-1826), Danish poet, was born on the 15th of February 1764 at Korsör. His parents were very poor, and before he was twelve he was sent to copy documents at the office of the clerk of the district. He was a melancholy, feeble child, and before this he had attempted suicide more than once. By dint of indomitable perseverance, he managed to gain an education, and in 1782 entered the university of Copenhagen. His success as a writer was coeval with his earliest publication; his Comical Tales in verse, poems that recall the Broad Grins that Colman the younger brought out a decade later, took the town by storm, and the struggling young poet found himself a popular favourite at twenty-one. He then tried serious lyrical writing, and his tact, elegance of

being always finished and elegant. With all his faults he stands as the greatest figure between Holberg and Öhlenschläger. Of all his poems, however, the loveliest and best is a little simple song, There was a time when I was very little, which every Dane, high or low, knows by heart, and which is matchless in its simplicity and pathos. It has outlived all his epics. (E. G.)

A

B

BAGGING, the name given to the textile stuff used for making bags (see also SACKING and TARPAULIN). The material used was originally Baltic hemp, while in the beginning of the 19th century Sunn hemp or India hemp was also employed. Modern requirements call for so many different types of bagging that it is not surprising to find all kinds of fibres used for this purpose. Most bagging is now made from yarns of the jute fibre. The cloth is, in general, woven with the plain weave, and the warp threads run in pairs, but large quantities of bags are made from cloths with single warp threads. In both cases the weave used for the cloth is that shown at A in the figure, but when double threads of warp are used, the arrangement is c equivalent to the weave shown at B. The interlacings of the two sets of warp and weft for single and double warp are D shown respectively at C and D, the black marks indicating the warp threads, and the white or blanks showing the weft. The particular style of bagging depends, naturally, upon the kind of material it is intended to hold. The coarsest type of bagging is perhaps that known as "cotton bagging," which derives its name from the fact that it is used in the manufacture of bags for transporting raw cotton from the United States of America. It is a heavy fabric 42 in. wide, and weighs from 2 to 24 lb per yard. A similar, but rather finer make, is used for Sea Island and other fine cotton, and for any species of fibrous material; but for grain, spices, sugar, flour, coffee, manure, &c., the threads of warp and weft must lie closer, and the warp is usually single. For transporting such