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Argos, in modern history, was taken from the Venetians, A.D. 1686. It was lost to the Turks in 1716, since when it continued in their hands until 1826. Argos became united in the sovereignty of Greece under Otho, the present and first king, January 25, 1833. See Greece.

ARGYLE, BISHOPRIC OF, founded A.D. 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the diocese was previously part of the see of Dunkeld; but was disjoined by pope Innocent III.; and it ended, with the abolition of episcopacy in Scotland, 1688. ARIANS. The followers of Arius, a numerous sect of Christians, who deny the divinity of CHRIST; they arose about AD. 315. The Arians were condemned by the council of Nice, in 325; but their doctrine became for a time the reigning religion in the East. It was favoured by Constantine, 319. Carried into Africa under the Vandals, in the fifth century, and into Asia under the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and hence arose the modern system of Arianism in Geneva, Arius died in 336. Servetus was burnt, 1553.—Varillas, Hist. de l'Hérésie.

ARITHMETIC. Where first invented is not known, at least with certainty. It was brought from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about 300 B.C. The sexagesimal arithmetic of Ptolemy was used A.D. 130. Diophantus of Alexandria, was the author of thirteen books of Arithmetical questions (of which six are extant) in 156. Notation by nine digits and zero, known at least as early as the sixth century in Hindostan-introduced from thence into Arabia, about 900— into Spain, 1050-into England, 1253. The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabic characters, is 1480. Arithmetic of decimals invented, 1482. First work printed in England on arithmetic (de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham, 1522. The theory of decimal fractions was perfected by lord Napier in his Rabdologia, in 1617.

ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal Deluge, 2347 B.C. But Apamea, in Phrygia, claims to be the spot; and medals have been struck there with e chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves: this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The ark was 300 cubits in length, fifty in breadth, and thirty high; but most interpreters suppose this cubit to be about a foot and a half, and not the geometrical one of six. There were, we are told, three floors-the first for beasts, the second for provisions, and the third for birds, and Noah's family. It was not made like a ship, but came near the figure of a square, growing gradually narrower to the top. There was a door in the first floor, and a great window in the third. ARKLOW, BATTLE OF, between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, June 10, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. Native gold was discovered in Arklow in Sept. 1795.-Phil. Trans. vol. 86. ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE. The famous Spanish armament so called consisted of 150 ships, 2650 great guns, 20,000 soldiers, 8000 sailors, and 2000 volunteers, under the duke of Medina Sidonia. It arrived in the Channel, July 19, 1588, and was defeated the next day by Drake and Howard. Ten fire-ships having been sent into the enemies' fleet, they cut their cables, put to sea and endeavoured to return

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to their rendezvous between Calais and Gravelines: the English fell upon them, took many ships, and admiral Howard maintained a running fight from the 21st July to the 27th, obliging the shattered fleet to bear away for Scotland and Ireland, where a storm dispersed them, and the remainder of the armament returned by the North Sea to Spain. The Spaniards lost fifteen capital ships in the engagement, and 5000 men; seventeen ships were lost or taken on the coast of Ireland, and upwards of 5000 men were drowned, killed, or taken prisoners. The English lost but one ship.— Rapin, Carte, Hume.

ARMAGH, BATTLE OF, fought against Edward Bruce, who was defeated, taken, and beheaded at Dundalk; and with him 6200 Scots lost their lives, A.D. 1318.Buchanan. This city is most ancient. It was destroyed by the Danes on Easterday, A.D. 852.-Burns.

ARMAGH, SEE OF, the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, was founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, in 444. One Daire, a man of great reputation among his own people, and of considerable wealth, granted the site whereon the church was erected, near the river Callan. The first name of this place was Druim Saileg ; but from its situation on a rising ground, was afterwards called Arhmach or Ardmach; that is, editus campus, a high field. Six saints have been bishops of this see. In the king's books, by an extent taken fifteen James I. it is valued at £400 sterling a year; but it is now estimated at £15,000 per annum. The see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151.—Beatson. ARMED NEUTRALITY. The confederacy, so called, of the northern powers against England, was commenced by the empress of Russia in 1780; but its objects were defeated in 1781. The pretension was renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, December 16, 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, April 2, 1801. That power, in consequence, was obliged to secede from the alliance, and acknowledge the claim of Eugland to the empire of the sea; and the Armed Neutrality was soon after dissolved. ARMENIA. Here Noah and his people resided when they left the ark, 2347 B.C. After being subject successively to the three great monarchies, Armenia fell to the kings of Syria. The Armenians were the original worshippers of fire: they also paid great veneration to Venus Anaitis, to whose priests even the highest classes of the people prostituted their daughters, prior to marriage.-Martin's Mémoires sur L'Arménie.

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ARMENIAN ERA commenced on the 9th of July, A.D. 552: the Ecclesiastical year on the 11th August. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; and in leap years subtract one day from March 1 to August 10. The Armenians use the old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE. Commonly made of brass, and disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere are seen in their natural position and motion, the whole being comprised in a frame. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 B.C.

Subdued by Selim II.

34

Overrun by the Russians
Surrender of Erzeroum

33 30

(See Syria.)

ARMINIANS (the) chiefly contend for the doctrine of universal redemption, and generally espouse the principles of the Church of England; especially asserting the subordination of the Christian church to the civil powers. They also contend for the efficacy of good works, as well as their necessity, in securing man's salvation. James I. and Charles I. favoured the doctrines of the Arminians; and the principles of the sect prevail generally in Holland and elsewhere, though condemned at the synod of Dort (see Dort) in 1618. Arminius, who was a divinity professor at Leyden, died in 1609.-Brandt.

ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the twelfth century. They took their rise from the knights painting their banners with different figures, and were introduced by the Crusaders, in order at first to distinguish noblemen in battle A.D. 1100. The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Columbiere in 1639. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798-and again in 1808.

ARMOUR. The warlike Europeans at first despised any other defence than the shield. Skins and padded hides were first used; and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The first body-armour of the Britons was skins of wild beasts, exchanged, after the Roman conquest, for the well-tanned leathern cuirass. -Tacitus. This latter continued till the Anglo-Saxon era. Hengist is said to have had scale armour, A.D. 449. The Norman armour formed both breeches and jacket, 1066. The hauberk had its hood of the same piece, 1100. John wore a surtout over a hauberk of rings set edgeways, 1199. The heavy cavalry were covered with a coat of mail, Henry III, 1216. Some horsemen had visors, and scull caps, same reign. Armour became exceedingly splendid about 1350. The armour of plate commenced, 1407. Black armour, used, not only for battle, but for mourning, Henry V. 1413. The armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about 1500. Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625. In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armour than a large gorget, which is commemorated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day.-Meyrick.

ARMS. The club was the first offensive weapon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, spear, javelin, sword, and dagger. Among ancient missiles were bows and arrows. Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the Phoenicians. See the various weapons through the volume.

ARMS. See Armorial Bearings and Heraldry. Those of England, at first simple, varied with the conquests which she made, and included the insignia of Wales, İreland, Scotland, France, and Hanover, as these countries successively fell to her sovereignty. The arms of England and France were claimed and quartered by Edward III. A.D. 1330. They were discontinued by the English kings on the union with Ireland, and a new Imperial standard was hoisted, Jan. 1, 1801. The escutcheon of Hanover was discontinued on its separation from England by the death of William IV. in 1837.

ARMS' BILL, IRELAND. A celebrated bill, whose object was the repression of crime and insurrection, was passed Oct. 15, 1831. It was a revival of the expired statutes of George III. The guns registered under this act throughout the kingdom at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill passed August 22, 1813. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C.-Eusebius. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The first standing army, existing as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Charles II. 1679. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies: Spain 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000 Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 680,000. ARMY, BRITISH. Statement of the effective military strength of the United Kingdom at the decennial periods respectively mentioned, and of the sums voted for military expenditure, drawn from parliamentary returns and other official records :

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In 1845, the army, of all ranks, numbered 100,011 men; and the sum voted was £4,487,753. The militia, volunteer, and other auxiliary forces, were of immense amount at some periods during the late war. The strength of the volunteer corps was greatest between the years 1798 and 1804, in which latter year this species of force amounted to 410,000 men, of whom 70,000 were Irish; and the militia had increased to 130,000 men previously to the regular regiments being recruited from its ranks in 1809.

ARMY OF OCCUPATION. The army distinguished by this name, was that of the allied powers of Austria, Russia, and Prussia, which occupied the northern frontier towns of France by the treaty which established the boundaries of France, and stipulated for the occupation of certain fortresses by foreign troops for three years, signed Nov. 20, 1815.

AROMATICS.

Acron of Agrigentum, is said to have been the first who caused great fires to be made, and aromatics to be thrown into them, to purify the air, by which means he put a stop to the plague at Athens, 473 B.C.-Nouv. Dict. ARRAIGNMENT consists in reading the indictment by the officer of the court, and the calling upon the prisoner to say whether he is guilty, or not guilty. Formerly, persons who refused to plead in cases of felony were pressed to death by large iron weights being placed upon the breast. A person standing mute is, by the existing law, convicted, 12 George III. 1771. See article Mute.

ARRAS, TREATY OF, between France and Burgundy, often quoted, was concluded, 1435. Another treaty was concluded by Maximilian of Austria with Louis XI. of France, whereby the countries of Burgundy and Artois were given to the Dauphin as a marriage portion; this latter was entered into, in 1482.-L'Abbé Velly. ARREST FOR DEBT. The persons of peers, members of parliament, &c., protected. See remarkable case of Ferrars' Arrest. Clergymen performing divine service privileged from arrest, 50 Edw. III. 1375. Seamen privileged for debts under £20, by act 30 Geo. II. 1756. Barristers are privileged from arrest while going to, attending upon, and returning from, court, on the business of their clients. By statute 29 Charles II. no arrest can be made, nor process served, upon a Sunday. This law was extended by William III. Vexatious arrests prevented by act. May 1733. Prohibited for less than £10, on process, 1779; and for less than £20, July, 1827. Arrests for less than £20 were prohibited on mesne process in Ireland, in June, 1829. Statute abolishing arrest for debt on mesne process, except in cases wherein there is ground to show that the defendant designs to leave the country, 2 Vict. Aug. 1838. ARSON. This felony has always been deemed capital, and been punished with death: it continued to be so punished, on a consolidation of the laws by statute 7 & 8 George IV. 1827. If any house be fired, and persons be therein, or if any vessel be fired, with a view to murder or plunder, it shall be death, statute 1 Vict. July, 1837. ARTICLES OF RELIGION. Six were published by Henry VIII. 1539; and 42 were published without the consent of parliament, in 1552. These 42 were reduced to 39 in Jan. 1563; and they received the royal authority, and that of parliament, in 1571: 104 were drawn up for Ireland by archbishop Usher, in 1614, and were established in 1634. On the union of the churches, the Irish adopted the English articles. ARTIFICERS AND MANUFACTURERS were prohibited from leaving England, and those abroad were outlawed, if they did not return within six months after the notice given them; and a fine of £100, together with imprisonment for three months,

made the penalties for seducing them from these realms, 9 George II. 1736. This and subsequent statutes have, however, failed in their object, as vast numbers of our scientific and experienced artificers are lured to foreign countries, and thus create rival manufactures to the prejudice of England.

ARTILLERY. The first piece was a small one, contrived by Schwartz, a German cordelier, soon after the invention of gunpowder, in 1330. Artillery was used, it is said, by the Moors at Algesiras, in Spain, in the siege of 1341; it was used, according to our historians, at the battle of Cressy, in 1346, when Edward III. had four pieces of cannon, which gained him the battle. We had artillery at the siege of Calais, 1347. The Venetians first employed artillery against the Genoese at sea, 1377.-Voltaire. Cast in England, together with mortars for bomb-shells, by Flemish artists, in Sussex, 1543.-Rymer's Fœdera. Made of brass, 1635; improvements by Browne, 1728. See Iron. ARTILLERY COMPANY OF LONDON; instituted for weekly military exercises in the Artillery-Ground, Finsbury, in 1610. This ground was at first (in 1498) a spacious field for the use of the London archers. The Artillery Company consisted of about 300 men, and served as a nursery of officers for the City militia.-Northouck's Hist. of London.

ARTS. See Literature. In the eighth century, the whole circle of sciences was composed of these seven liberal arts, namely grammar, rhetoric, logic, arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy.-Harris. The Royal Society of England (which see) obtained its charter April 2, 1663. The Society of Arts, to promote the polite arts, commerce, manufactures, and mechanics, was instituted in 1754; it originated in the patriotic zeal of Mr. Shipley, and of its first president, lord Folkstone. The first public exhibition by the artists of the British metropolis took place in 1760, at the rooms of this society, and was repeated there for several years, till, in process of time, the Royal Academy was founded. See Royal Academy. The Society of British Artists was instituted May 21, 1823; and their first exhibition was opened April 19, 1824.-See British Museum; British Institution; National Gallery, &c. ARUNDEL CASTLE, built by the Saxons, about 800. The duke of Norfolk enjoys the earldom of Arundel, as a feudal honour, by inheritance and possession of the castle, without any other creation. Philip Howard, son of the attainted duke of Norfolk, was made earl of Arundel, by summons, as possessor of this castle, 1580. ARUNDELIAN MARBLES; containing the chronology of ancient history from 1582 to 355 B.C., and said to have been sculptured 264 B.C. They consist of 37 statues, 128 busts, and 250 inscriptions, and were found in the Isle of Paros, in the reign of James I., about 1610. They were purchased by lord Arundel, and given to the university of Oxford, 1627. The characters are Greek, of which there are two translations by Selden, 1628; by Prideaux, 1676.-See Kidd's Tracts; and Porson's Treatise, 1789.

AS. A Roman weight and coin: when considered as a weight, it was a pound; when a coin, it had different weights, but always the same value. In the reign of Servius, the as weighed a pound of brass; in the first Punic war, it weighed two ounces, 264 B.C.; in the second Punic war, one ounce, 218 B.C.; and afterwards, half an ounce : its value was about three farthings sterling.

ASBESTOS, a native fossil stone, which may be split into threads and filaments, and which is endued with the property of remaining unconsumed in the fire.-Chamb. Cloth was made of it by the Egyptians.-Herodotus. Napkins made of it in the time of Pliny, A.D. 74; paper made of it by the ancients; the spinning of asbestos known at Venice, about A.D. 1500.-Baptista Porta.

ASCALON, BATTLE OF; in which Richard I. of England, commanding the Christian forces, defeated the sultan Saladin's army of 300,000 Saracens and other infidels. No less than 40,000 of the enemy were left dead on the field of battle; and the victorious Richard marched to Jerusalem, A.D. 1192.—Rymer.

ASCENSION DAY. This day, also called Holy Thursday, is that on which the church celebrates the ascension of our Saviour, the fortieth day after his resurrection from the dead, May 14, A.D. 33; first commemorated A.D. 68. Some Christian writers affirm that Christ left the print of his feet on that part of mount Olivet where he last stood; and St. Jerome says that it was visible in his time.

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