Question. "What have been the causes of wars; the degree in which their objects have been secured, and the state in which belligerents have been left at their termination."

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In the Report, the inquiry is "confined to wars in which civilized nations have been engaged since they became christian" or "since Constantine assumed the reins of the Roman empire," omitting a great number of petty wars in small nations of an tiquity-temporary insurrections or trivia! hostilities—and a mul titude of wars which have been carried on between christian and savage nations, such as the aborigines of Asia and America." The Report relates to "286 wars of magnitude, in which christian nations have been engaged." These are divided into the ten following classes.

First." Wars of ambition—to obtain extent of territory by conquest. We have enumerated 44 wars of magnitude of this class12 in which the assailants have been Heathen or Mahometan, and Christian nations defendants; and all the others, we regret to say, have been attacks made by nations professing Christianity on oth ers, without any decent pretence or color of right. In 17 instances the assailing nation has been completely victorious-In 19 instances the assailing nation has been repulsed-and in 8 the assailants have obtained partial augmentations of territory secured by peace."

Second. Predatory wars-" for plunder, or tribute, or to obtain a settlement for subsistence."-"We have enumerated 22 in all." "The invasions have commonly ended in repulse; but seldom without effecting some mischief."

Third. Wars of revenge or retaliation-"We enumerate 24 of them; of which 5 have been successful-4 partially successful13 unsuccessful, the assailants having been repelled—and 2 left undetermined by circumstances, and gave rise to new wars."

Fourth. Wars to settle some question of honor or prerogative. Of this class "We record 8 wars; in 4 of which the point of honor was gained-3 were settled by compromise-1 submitted to a

council."

Fifth. Wars arising from disputed claims to some territory. Six only are enumerated. "Of these the party occupying the territory in question preserved it in 2 instances in the other 4, partition arrangements were made.

Sixth. Wars arising from disputed titles to crowns. "We have enumerated 41 wars of this class; in 18 instances the party claiming the throne recovered it from the party in possession-in 18 instances the possessor of the throne maintained it, and in 2 of these the assailants lost their own crowns in aiming at others; and in 5 other instances the results were undecisive, and the parties pacified by compromise or partition.

Seventh." War commenced under the pretence of assisting some_ally, or some friend or person flying from alleged oppression. We have

found 30 of these wars; in 18 of which the assailing or protecting party have been victorious-in 6 the defendants have maintained their ground or defeated the assailants; and 6 have terminated undecisively in what is called the statu quo-or in compromise at a general peace."

Seventh. "Wars which have arisen from the distrust of nations towards each other-jealousy of rival greatness, or fear of increasing armaments or extended conquests.-23 wars of this description have been observed within our limits.-In 11 of them the allies or assailants have been successful-7 of them have been ended by compromise or treaty, generally placing the parties where they were when they began; and 5 have resulted in the defeat of the coalition and the further aggrandizement of the obnoxious power."

Eighth. "Wars which have grown out of commerce-designed for its protection against foreign depredations. We have found but 5 wars of this class Neither of them have resulted in greater security to the commerce molested; 2 have given victory to the encroaching power; and 3 have been extinguished by a general peace, leaving the commercial injuries unatoned for."

Ninth. "Civil wars, carried on by different parties in the same nation. We record 55 of this class-in 21 the rebelling party have overthrown those who were at the commencement in possession of power, or established a separate independence; 28 have resulted in the suppression of rebellion, and the confirmation of power to the party possessing it; 5 have been terminated by compromise-allowing new privileges to the claimants-and 1 between Spain and the revolted provinces in South America-yet unde

termined."

"We have noticed 28 wars

Tenth. Wars on account of religion. of this class-7 called Crusades, by Christian powers to expel Mahometans from countries esteemed holy-5 by Mahometans on Christian nations-2 by Christian nations to compel their neighbors to become Christians-11 by Popes or bigotted monarchs to reduce those they deemed heretics-and 3 to recover territory from the hands of infidels-in 14 instances the oppressing or assailing parties have been victorious-in 9 the defendants maintained their religion and their territories-and in 5, no decisive result, but a compromise or temporary peace terminated the conflicts."

To collect and arrange the materials for such a Report must have required much labour. The facts and results are accompanied with many just and important remarks, which we hope hereafter to exhibit in this work, should the Report fail of being published as a distinct Tract. We are happy in having the consent of the Committee for giving the preceding extracts.

PROTEST OF THE RICHMOND GRAND JURY.

"On wearing concealed arms.”

WE, the Grand Jury for the city of Richmond, at August Court, 1920, do not believe it to be inconsistent with our duty to animadvert upon any practice which, in our opinion, may be attended with consequences dange rous to the peace and good order of society. We have observed, with regret, the very numerous instances of stabbing, which have of late years occurred, and which have been owing in most cases to the practice which has so frequently prevailed, of wearing dirks. Armed in secret, and emboldened by the possession of these deadly weapons, how frequently have disputes been carried to fatal extremities, which might otherwise have been either amicably adjusted. or attended with no serious consequencer to the parties engaged. The Grand Jury would not recommend any legislative interference with what they conceive to be one of the most essential privileges of freemen, the right of carrying arms: But we feel it our duty publicly to express our abhorrence of a practice which it becomes all good citizens to frown upon with contempt, and to endeavour to sup press. We consider the practice of carrying arms secreted, in cases where no personal attack can reasonably be apprehended, to be infinitely more reprehensible than even the act of stabbing, if committed during a sudden affray, in the heat of passion, where the party was not previously armed for the purpose. We conceive that it manifests a hostile, and, if the expression may be allowed, a piratical disposition against the human race—that it is derogatory from that open, manly, and chivalrous character, which it should be the pride of our countrymen to maintain unimpaired-and that its fatal effects have been too frequently felt and deplored, not to require the serious animadversions of the community.

Unanimously adopted.

JAMES BROWN, Foreman.
National Intelligencer, Sept. 9, 1820.

To the philanthropist it will afford pleasure to observe the progress of light on subjects which relate to human slaughter. Wearing dirks is a mode of preparing for war; and we have no doubt that these Jurors were correct in imputing to this practice," the very numerous instances of stabbing." The circumstance of wearing the dirk "concealed," is not the source of the evils which result; but by wearing arms as weapons of revenge in case of any affront, the minds of men become familiar with the idea of taking human life, and thus fitted for crime. In all the modes of wearing arms as weapons for human slaughter, a haughty, vindictive feeling is naturally induced and nourished; and too often desires are excited for an opportunity to employ the arms, thus prepared, in the work of death. Hence the dirk-wearing gentry find occasions for stabbing; the duellist, for single combat: and nations for public war.

That a desire for war is the natural fruit of preparing for it, was "well understood by Frederic, the great Prussian war-maker. The following are his memorable words, which can hardly be too often repeated, till the sentiment shall be better understood:-"Thus were two nations during peace preparing for war; like two gladiators, who impatiently burn to employ the swords they are sharpening."

But were the popular opinion correct," that preparations for public war are the best means for preventing it;" analogy would teach, that similar means should be adopted to prevent private war. Hence it would follow that the dirk-wearers have chosen the path of safety, and that the Grand Jury of Richmond are under a mistake, as to the source of the "numerous instances of stabbing.

The Grand Jury go further and say-" We consider the prac tice of carrying arms secreted, in cases where no personal attack can reasonably be apprehended, to be infinitely more reprehensible than even the act of stabbing, if committed during a sudden affray, in the heat of passion, where the party was not previously armed for the purpose."

Now if there be really so much blame incurred by going armed in time of peace, and being always prepared for private war ; what shall be said of the conduct of all governments, in spending the whole of every interval of peace in preparing for public war,and in doing all they can to keep alive the war spirit? If the frequency of private stabbing may be accounted for, by the preparations made for it; may not the frequency of public war be easily accounted for on the same principle?

With due respect for the opinions and characters of others, we submit the foregoing remarks; and shall close the article with three short extracts, on which we shall make no comments.

"Tis universal soldiership has stabb'd

The heart of merit in the meaner class.
Arms, through the vanity and brainless rage
Of those that bear them, in whatever cause,
Seem most at variance with all mortal good,

And incompatible with serious thought."—Cowper.

"The truth is, I could give such instructions with regard to cock-fighting-and could so arm one of these animals against the other, that it would be almost impossible for the adversary's cock to survive the first or second blow: but as Boerhaave has said on a former occasion, when treating upon poisons,- To teach the arts of cruelty is equivalent to commuting them.""-Goldsmith.

"If it be true which Psellus saith, that the devils feast on the vapour that is exhaled from the blood of men, surely the Christian devils are the fattest of the whole herd."-Dr. Hammond.

CONTEST OF TAXILES WITH ALExander.

PLUTARCH, in his Life of Alexander, gives the following nar rative of a contest between him and Taxiles, one of the Kings of India.

"The dominions of Taxiles, it is said, were as large as Egypt. They afforded excellent pasturage and were in every respect productive. As he was a man of consummate prudence, he waited

on Alexander, and after first compliments, thus addressed him : • What occasion is there for wars between you and me, if you have not come to deprive us of our water and other necessaries of lifethe only things for which reasonable men will take up arms As to gold and silver and other possessions. if I am richer than you, I am willing to oblige you with part; if I am poorer, I have no objection to sharing in your bounty.'

"Charmed with this frankness, Alexander took him by the hand and answered,- Do you think then, by all this civility, to escape a conflict? You are deceived if you do. I will dispute it with you to the last,-but it shall be in favours and benefits; for I will not have you outdo me in generosity.""

In this ancedote Taxiles appears to great advantage, as a man of shrewdness, independence, magnanimity and good humor. On this occasion too Alexander appears to better advantage than he ever did in urging on his troops to the work of destruction. Indeed this single instance of self-controul and magnanimity is worthy of more praise, than all the war exploits of that conqueror.

This narrative clearly shows on what easy terms the nations might be exempted from the calamities of war. Let the rulers of different countries act towards each other on the principles of justice, civility, generosity, and good nature-let their contests for preeminence be only "in favours and benefits;" then their subjects may enjoy the blessings of peace. If the leading men in the several nations would set an example of a pacific and benevolent treatment of each other, and of their own people, they would easily diffuse such sentiments throughout their respective dominions,-and thus preclude the foolish pretexts for public hostilities.

Besides, if such a sanguinary and ambitious warrior as Alexander, could be diverted from a purpose of invasion by the frank and noble conduct of Taxiles; is it not folly to pretend that wars are inevitable, and their abolition impossible!

REFLECTIONS ON LATE EVENTS IN EUROPE.

SOME events have occurred in Europe in the course of this year, of a character so uncommon, that it would require the spirit of prophecy to foretell their results. They seem to indicate a violent storm; yet God may disappoint the expectations of men, and cause these unusual occurrences to be means of great good to all

nations.

The very means and instruments on which European govern. ments have relied for the support of their power, are found to be capable of controlling and defeating their purposes, and even of changing the forms of their existence. That regular troops are dangerous to liberty and the rights of men, has long been a prevailing opinion. But, strange as it may seem, the regular