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practised as a barrister at Liége, took a prominent part in the Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the Chamber as member for Liége. In August of the same year he was appointed minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from 1848 to 1852 was minister of finance. He founded the Banque Nationale and the Caisse d'Epargne, abolished the newspaper tax, reduced the postage, and modified the customs duties as a preliminary to a decided free-trade policy The Liberalism of the cabinet, in which Frère-Orban exercised an influence hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful to Napoleon III. Frère-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for a new commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright, which proved highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned office, soon followed by the rest of the cabinet. His work La Mainmorte et la charité (1854-1857), published under the pseudonym of "Jean van Damme," contributed greatly to restore his party to power in 1857, when he again became minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles in commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the octroi duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned in 1861 on the gold question, but soon resumed office, and in 1868 succeeded Rogier as prime minister. In 1869 he defeated the attempt of France to gain control of the Luxemburg railways, but, despite this service to his country, fell from power at the elections of 1870. He returned to office in 1878 as president of the council and foreign minister. He provoked the bitter opposition of the Clerical party by his law of 1879 establishing secular primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to break off diplomatic relations with the Vatican He next found himself at variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the introduction of universal suffrage. Frère-Orban, while rejecting the proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883); but the hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a financial crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of 1884. Frère-Orban continued to take an active part in politics as leader of the Liberal opposition till 1894, when he failed to secure re-election. He died at Brussels on the 2nd of January 1896. Besides the work above mentioned, he published La Question monétaire (1874), La Question monétaire en Belgique in 1889; Echange de vues entre MM. Frère-Orban et E. de Laveleye (1890); and La Révision constitutionnelle en Belgique et ses conséquences (1894). He was also the author of numerous pamphlets, among which may be mentioned his last work, La Situation présente (1895).

FRÉRET, NICOLAS (1688-1749), French scholar, was born at Paris on the 15th of February 1688. His father was procureur to the parlement of Paris, and destined him to the profession of the law. His first tutors were the historian Charles Rollin and Father Desmolets (1677-1760). Amongst his early studies history, chronology and mythology held a prominent place. To please his father he studied law and began to practise at the bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into his own path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks, on the worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo. He was hardly twenty-six years of age when he was admitted as pupil to the Academy of Inscriptions. One of the first memoirs which he read was a learned and critical discourse, Sur l'origine des Francs (1714). He maintained that the Franks were a league of South German tribes and not, according to the legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization intact in the heart of a barbarous country. These sensible views excited great indignation in the Abbé Vertot, who denounced Fréret to the government as a libeller of the monarchy. A lettre de cachet was issued, and Fréret was sent to the Bastille. During his three months of confinement he devoted himself to the study of the works of Xenophon, the fruit of which appeared later in his memoir on the Cyropaedia. From the time of his liberation in March 1715 his life was uneventful In January 1716 he was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions, and in December 1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He

worked without intermission for the interests of the Academy, not even claiming any property in his own writings, which were printed in the Recueil de l'académie des inscriptions. The list of his memoirs, many of them posthumous, occupies four columns of the Nouvelle Biographie générale. They treat of history, chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout he appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining into the comparative value of documents, distinguishing between the mythical and the historical, and separating traditions with an historical element from pure fables and legends. He rejected the extreme pretensions of the chronology of Egypt and China, and at the same time controverted the scheme of Sir Isaac Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology not only of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that the stories of mythology may be referred to historic originals. He also suggested that Greek mythology owed much to the Phoenicians and Egyptians. He was one of the first scholars of Europe to undertake the study of the Chinese language; and in this he was engaged at the time of his committal to the Bastille. He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1749.

Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were falsely attributed to him, and were long believed to be his. The most famous of these spurious works are the Examen critique des apologistes printed in London about 1768. A very defective and inaccurate de la religion chrétienne (1766), and the Lettre de Thrasybule à Leucippe, edition of Fréret's works was published in 1796-1799. A new and complete edition was projected by Champollion Figeac, but of this only the first volume appeared (1825). It contains a life of Fréret His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were deposited in the library of the Institute. The best account of his works is "Examen critique des ouvrages composés par Fréret in C. A Walckenaer's Recueil des notices, &c. (1841-1850) See also Quérard's France litteraire

Lettres de la Comtesse de

FRÉRON, ÉLIE CATHERINE (1719-1776), French critic and controversialist, was born at Quimper in 1719. He was educated by the Jesuits, and made such rapid progress in his studies that before the age of twenty he was appointed professor at the college of Louis-le-Grand He became a contributor to the Observations sur les écrits modernes of the abbé Guyot Desfontaines. The very fact of his collaboration with Desfontaines, one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to arouse the latter's hostility, and although Fréron had begun his career as one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed. Fréron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled It was suppressed in 1749, but he immediately replaced it by Lettres sur quelques écrits de ce temps, which, with the exception of a short suspension in 1752, on account of an attack on the character of Voltaire, was continued till 1754, when it was succeeded by the more ambitious Année littéraire His death at Paris on the 10th of March 1776 is said to have been hastened by the temporary suppression of this journal. Fréron is now remembered solely for his attacks on Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations they provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him in epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed against him a virulent satire, Le Pauvre diable, and made him the principal personage in a comedy L'Ecossaise, in which the journal of Fréron is designated L'Âne littéraire A further attack on Fréron entitled Anecdotes sur Fréron (1760), published anonymously, is generally attributed to Voltaire.

Fréron was the author of Ode sur la bataille de Fontenoy (1745); Histoire de Marie Stuart (1742, 2 vols.), and Histoire de l'empire d'Allemagne, (1771, 8 vols.) See Ch. Nisard, Les Ennemis de Voltaire (1853), Despois, Journalistes et journaux du XVIII siècle, Barthélemy, Les confessions de Fréron; Ch. Monselet, Fréron, ou l'illustre critique (1864). Fréron, sa vie, souvenirs, &c. (1876)

FRÉRON, LOUIS MARIE STANISLAS (1754-1802), French revolutionist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris on the 17th of August 1754. His name was, on the death of his father, attached to L'Année littéraire, which was continued till 1790 and edited successively by the abbes G. M Royou and J L Geoffroy. On the outbreak of the revolution Fréron, who was a schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, established

the violent journal L'Orateur du peuple. Commissioned, along
with Barras in 1793, to establish the authority of the con-
vention at Marseilles and Toulon, he distinguished himself
in the atrocity of his reprisals, but both afterwards joined the
Thermidoriens, and Fréron became the leader of the jeunesse
dorte and of the Thermidorian reaction. He brought about the
accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the deporta-
tion of B. Barère, and the arrest of the last Montagnards. He
made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being
sent by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he
published in 1796 Mémoire historique sur la réaction royale et
sur les malheurs du midi. He was elected to the council of the
Five Hundred, but not allowed to take his seat. Failing as
suitor for the hand of Pauline Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's
sisters, he went in 1799 as commissioner to Santo Domingo and
died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had married
Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo
in 1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.
FRESCO (Ital. for cool, "fresh"), a term introduced into
English, both generally (as in such phrases as al fresco, " in the
fresh air "), and more especially as a technical term for a sort
of mural painting on plaster. In the latter sense the Italians
distinguished painting a secco (when the plaster had been allowed
to dry) from a fresco (when it was newly laid and still wet). The
nature and history of fresco-painting is dealt with in the article
PAINTING.
FRESCOBALDI, GIROLAMO (1583-1644), Italian musical
composer, was born in 1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his
life except that he studied music under Alessandro Milleville,
and owed his first reputation to his beautiful voice. He was
organist at St Peter's in Rome from 1608 to 1628. According to
Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St Peter's on his first
appearance there. On the 20th of November 1628 he went to
live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter's. But in
the last year of his life he was organist in the parish church of
San Lorenzo in Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being
buried at Rome in the Church of the Twelve Apostles. Fresco-
baldi also excelled as a teacher, Frohberger being the most
distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi's compositions show
the consummate art of the early Italian school, and his works
for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices of
fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions,
such as canzone, motets, hymns, &c., a collection of madrigals
for five voices (Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his
published works.

FRESHWATER, a watering place in the Isle of Wight, England, 12 m. W. by S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(1901) 3306. It is a scattered township lying on the peninsula west of the river Var, which forms the western extremity of the island. The portion known as Freshwater Gate fronts the English Channel from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the cliffs of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The peninsula rises to 397 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north by the picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks known as the Needles lie off it. Farringford House in the parish was for some time the home of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is commemorated by a tablet in All Saints' church and by a great cross on the high downs above the town. There are golf links on the downs.

FRESNEL, AUGUSTIN JEAN (1788-1827), French physicist, the son of an architect, was born at Broglie (Eure) on the 10th of May 1788. His early progress in learning was slow, and when eight years old he was still unable to read. At the age of thirteen he entered the Ecole Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half the École Polytechnique, where he acquitted himself with distinction. Thence he went to the Ecole des Ponts et Chaussées. He served as an engineer successively in the departments of Vendée, Drôme and Ille-et-Villaine; but his espousal of the cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon's reaccession to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second restoration he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics, continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the year 1814, when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light, which, however, was not published. In 1818 he read a memoir on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize of the Académie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823 unanimously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he became a member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827, at the time of his last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal. In 1819 he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses, for which he was the first to construct compound lenses as substitutes for mirrors. He died of consumption at Ville-d'Avray, near Paris, on the 14th of July 1827.

The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experiinental demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a large class of optical phenomena, and permanently established by his brilliant discoveries and mathematical deductions. By the use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other an angle of nearly 180°, he avoided the diffraction caused in FRESENIUS, KARL REMIĠIUS (1818-1897), German chemist, the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on interference was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 28th of December 1818. by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the light, Alter spending some time in a pharmacy in his native town, he and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account entered Bonn University in 1840, and a year later migrated to for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the Giessen, where he acted as assistant in Liebig's laboratory, and undulatory theory. With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he was appointed of the interference of polarized rays. Circularly polarized light to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the Wies- he obtained by means of a rhomb of glass, known as "Fresnel's baden Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became rhomb," having obtuse angles of 126°, and acute angles of 54°. the first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced His labours in the cause of optical science received during his the Nassau government to establish at that place. Under his lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers care this laboratory continuously increased in size and popularity, were not printed by the Académie des Sciences till many years a school of pharmacy being added in 1862 (though given up in after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him 187) and an agricultural research laboratory in 1868. Apart" that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory" from his administrative duties Fresenius occupied himself almost had been blunted. "All the compliments," he says, "that I have exclusively with analytical chemistry, and the fullness and received from Arago, Laplace and Biot never gave me so much accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of which that on pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on quantita- of a calculation by experiment." tive in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his original papers were published in the Zeitschrift für analytische Chemie, which he founded in 1862 and continued to edit till his death. He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the 11th of June 1897. In 1881 he handed over the directorship of the agricultural research station to his son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (b. 1847), who was trained under H. Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son, Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was educated at Strassburg and occupied various positions in the Wiesbaden laboratory.

XJ 4

See Duleau, "Notice sur Fresnel," Revue ency. t. xxxix.; Arago, Euvres complètes, t. i.; and Dr G. Peacock, Miscellaneous Works of Thomas Young, vol. i.

FRESNILLO, a town of the state of Zacatecas, Mexico, 37 m. N.W. of the city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river. Pop. (1900) 6309. It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa Cruz and Zacatecas ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has a temperate climate, and is surrounded by an agricultural district producing Indian corn and wheat. It is a clean, well

la

built town, whose chief distinction is its school of mines founded | action of chemicals, water, &c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the reduction or irritate. Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing, of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring is the use of "fret " for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo, Proaño hill, were discovered in 1569, and were for a time among guitar, or similar musical instruments to mark the fingering. the most productive in Mexico. Since 1833, when their richest❘ (2) (Of doubtful origin; possibly from the O. Eng. frative, ornadeposits were reached, the output has greatly decreased. There ments, but its use is paralleled by the Fr. frelle, trellis or lattice), is a station near on the Mexican Central railway. network, a term used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but best known as applied to the decoration used by the Greeks in their temples and vases: the Greek fret consists of a series of narrow bands of different lengths, placed at right angles to one another, and of great variety of design. It is an ornament which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the ceilings of the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere. In Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Doric capital and probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed by the Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the temple at Damascus and the temple at Atil being examples of the 2nd century. It was carved in large dimensions on some of the Mexican temples, as for instance on the palace at Mitla with other decorative bands, all of which would seem to have been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the latter country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fretdiaper, the bands not being at right angles to one another but forming acute and obtuse angles. In old English writers a wider signification was given to it, as it was applied to raised patterns in plaster on roofs or ceilings, which were not confined to the geometrical fret but extended to the modelling of flowers, leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as fret-work. In France the fret is better known as the" meander.” FREUDENSTADT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Württemberg, on the right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from Stuttgart, on the railway to Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, some small manufactures of cloth, furniture, knives, nails and glass, and is frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599 by Protestant refugees from Salzburg.

FRESNO, a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, California, U.S.A., situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude about 300 ft.) near the geographical centre of the state. Pop. (1880) 1112; (1890) 10,818; (1900) 12,470, of whom 3299 were foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics; (1910 census) 24,892. The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé railways. The county is mainly a vast expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is the scene of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought (first in 1872-1876) from King's river, 20 m. distant; in 1905 500 sq. m. were irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country, producing grains and fruit, and is the only place in America where Smyrna figs have been grown with success; it is the centre of the finest raisin country of the state, and has extensive vineyards and wine-making establishments. The city's principal manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly raisins; the value of the fruits thus preserved in 1905 was $6,942,440, being 70.5% of the total value of the factory product in that year ($9,849,001). In 1900-1905 the factory product increased 257.9%, a ratio of increase greater than that of any other city in the state. In the mountains, lumbering and mining are important industries; lumber is carried from Shaver in the mountains to Clovis on the plains by a V-shaped flume 42 m. long, the waste water from which is ditched for irrigation. The petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in California. Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and of the surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In 1872 the railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and incorporated. It became the county-seat in 1874 and was chartered as a city in 1885.

FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), French painter and writer on his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothecary. He was destined for the medical profession, and well educated in Latin and Greek; but, having a natural propensity | for the fine arts, he would not apply to his intended vocation, and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design under Perrier and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome, with no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After two years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student Pierre Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his professional prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique, went in 1633 to Venice, and in 1656 returned to France. During two years he was now employed in painting altar-pieces in the château of Raincy, landscapes, &c. His death was caused by an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired at Villiers le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works are few; they are correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci in design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and expression, and insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute. He is remembered now almost entirely as a writer rather than painter. His Latin poem, De arte graphica, was written during his Italian sojourn, and embodied his observations on the art of painting; it may be termed a critical treatise on the practice of the art, with general advice to students. The precepts are sound according to the standard of his time; the poetical merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed chiefly on Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by Mignard, and has been translated into several languages. In 1684 it was turned into French by Roger de Piles; Dryden translated the work into English prose; and a rendering into verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua Reynolds added some annotations.

FRET. (1) (From O. Eng. fretan, a word common in various forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Ger. fressen, to eat greedily), properly to devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding

FREUND, WILHELM (1806-1894), German philologist and lexicographer, was born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen on the 27th of January 1806. He studied at Berlin, Breslau and Halle, and was for twenty years chiefly engaged in private tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of the Jewish school at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to Breslau, where he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in the movement for the emancipation of his Prussian coreligionists, and the Judengesetz of 1847 was in great measure the result of his efforts. The work by which he is best known is his Wörterbuch der lateinischen Sprache (1834-1845), practically the basis of all Latin-English dictionaries. His Wie studiert man klassische Philologie? (6th ed., 1903) and Triennium philologicum (2nd ed., 1878-1885) are valuable aids to the classical student.

1

FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was born at Northiam, in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College, Oxford, where in 1612 he became a fellow. In 1617 and 16:1 the college allowed him to act as chaplain to Sir John Digby, ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a sermon which pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the latter on his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1625 he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen College, and in the following year he was elected president. He was vice-chancellor of the university in 1628 and 1629, and again in 1638 and 1639. It was mainly by his instrumentality that the university plate was sent to the king at York in 1642. Two years later he was consecrated bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship. Parliament declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and Cromwell afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however, designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able to escape into France. At the Restoration he reappeared in public, and in 1660 he was consecrated archbishop of York. In 1661 he acted as chairman of the Savoy conference.

FREY (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities | to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the in the northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes. republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was He is the god of fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and distasteful, turned the scale against him by transferring the thus the source of all prosperity. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, votes to M. Sadi Carnot. ad fin.)

In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet

FREYBURG (FREYBURG AN DER UNSTRUT], a town of-the first civilian since 1848 to hold that office. His services Germany, in Prussian Saxony, in an undulating vine-clad country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from Naumberg-on-the-Saale, on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a parish church, a mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a handsome tower. It is, however, as being the "Mecca" of the German gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1852), the father of German gymnastic exercises, lies buried. Over his grave is built the Turnhalle, with a statue of the "master," while hard by it the Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1903. Freyburg produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the castle of Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper, count in Thuringia, but in its present form mainly the work of the dukes of Saxe-Weissenfels.

),

to France in this capacity were the crowning achievement of his life, and he enjoyed the conspicuous honour of holding his office without a break for five years through as many successive administrations-those of Floquet and Tirard, his own fourth ministry (March 1890-February 1892), and the Loubet and Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the three-years' service and the establishment of a general staff, a supreme council of war, and the army commands. His premiership was marked by heated debates on the clerical question, and it was a hostile vote on his Bill against the religious associations that caused the fall of his cabinet. He failed to clear himself entirely of complicity in the Panama scandals, and in January 1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November 1898 he once more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but resigned office on 6th May 1899. He has published, besides the works already mentioned, Traité de mécanique rationnelle (1858); De l'analyse infinitésimale (1860, revised ed., 1881); Des pentes économiques en chemin de fer (1861); Emploi des eaux d'égout en agriculture (1869); Principes de l'assainissement des villes and Trailé d'assainissement industriel (1870); Essai sur la philosophie des sciences (1896); La Question d'Égypte (1905); besides some remarkable "Pensées" contributed to the Contemporain under the pseudonym of " Alceste." In 1882 he was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1890 to the French Academy in succession to Emile Augier.

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FREYCINET, CHArles louis de SAULCES DE (1828French statesman, was born at Foix on the 14th of November 1818. He was educated at the Ecole Polytechnique, and entered the government service as a mining engineer. In 1858 he was appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de fer du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent for organization, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service (in which he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general). He was sent on a number of special scientific missions, among which may be mentioned one to England, on which he wrote a notable Mémoire sur le travail des femmes et des enfants dans les FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DESAULSES DE (1779-1842), manufactures de l'Angleterre (1867). On the establishment of French navigator, was born at Montélimart, Drôme, on the 7th the Third Republic in September 1870, he offered his services of August 1779. In 1793 he entered the French navy. After to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of Tarn-et- taking part in several engagements against the British, he joined Garronne, and in October became chief of the military cabinet. in 1800, along with his brother Louis Henri Freycinet (1777It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta 1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral, the expedition to raise army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He sent out under Captain Baudin in the "Naturaliste" and showed himself a strategist of no mean order; but the policy "Géographe to explore the south and south-west coasts of of dictating operations to the generals in the field was not Australia. Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders attended with happy results. The friction between him and was revisited, and new names imposed by this expedition, which General d'Aurelle de Paladines resulted in the loss of the ad- claimed credit for discoveries really made by the English navivantage temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was responsible gator. An inlet on the coast of West Australia, in 26° S., is for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction of called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near the extreme southBourbaki's army. In 1871 he published a defence of his admini-west of the same coast also bears the explorer's name. stration under the title of La Guerre en province pendant le siège de Paris. He entered the Senate in 1876 as a follower of Gambetta, and in December 1877 became minister of public works in the Dufaure cabinet. He carried a great scheme for the gradual acquisition of the railways by the state and the construction of new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for the development of the canal system at a further cost of one milliard. He retained his post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in December 1879 as president of the council and minister for foreign affairs. He passed an amnesty for the Communists, but in attempting to steer a middle course on the question of the religious associations, lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned in September 1880. In January 1882 he again became president of the council and minister for foreign affairs. His refusal to Join England in the bombardment of Alexandria was the deathkrell of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to compromise by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit was rejected in the Chamber by 417 votes to 75, and the ministry resigned. He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister in the Brisson cabinet, and retained that post when, in January 1836, he succeeded to the premiership. He came into power with an ambitious programme of internal reform; but except that he settled the question of the exiled pretenders, his successes were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial extension. In spite of his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary tactician, he failed to keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd December 1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts

he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government with the work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition; he also completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared under the title of Voyage de découvertes aux terres australes (Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817 he commanded the "Uranie,” in which Arago and others went to Rio de Janeiro, to take a series of pendulum measurements. This was only part of a larger scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteorology, and for the collection of specimens in natural history. On this expedition the hydrographic operations were conducted by Louis Isidore Duperry (1786-1865) who in 1822 was appointed to the command of the "Coquille," and during the next three years carried out scientific explorations in the southern Pacific and along the coast of South America. For three years Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne, Sandwich, and other Pacific islands, South America, and other places, and, notwithstanding the loss of the "Uranie" on the Falkland Islands during the return voyage, returned to France with fine collections in all departments of natural history, and with voluminous notes and drawings which form an important contribution to a knowledge of the countries visited. The results of this voyage were published under Freycinet's supervision, with the title of Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes "l'Uranie" et "la Physicienne" in 1824-1844, in 13 quarto volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Freycinet was admitted into the Academy of Sciences'in 1825, and was one

of the founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at | the history and manners of Germany. In 1872 he began a Freycinet, Drôme, on the 18th of August 1842.

FREYIA, the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in Northern mythology. Her character seems in general to have resembled that of her brother. (See TEUTONIC PEOPLES, ad fin.) FREYTAG, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1861), German philologist, was born at Lüneburg on the 19th of September 1788. After attending school he entered the university of Göttingen as a student of philology and theology; here from 1811 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in the latter year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Königsberg. In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that capacity visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned his chaplaincy, and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian and Turkish, studying at Paris under De Sacy. In 1819 he was appointed to the professorship of oriental languages in the new university of Bonn, and this post he continued to hold until his death on the 16th of November 1861.

Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (Kurzgefasste Gram-2 matik der hebräischen Sprache, 1835), and a treatise on Arabic versification (Darstellung der arabischen Verskunst, 1830), he edited two volumes of Arabic songs (Hamasae carmina, 1828-1852) and three of Arabic proverbs (Arabum proverbia, 1838-1843). But his principal work was the laborious and praiseworthy Lexicon Arabicolatinum (Halle, 1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published

in 1837.

FREYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-1895), German novelist, was born at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, on the 13th of July 1816. After attend ing the gymnasium at Öls, he studied philology at the universities of Breslau and Berlin, and in 1838 took the degree with a remarkable dissertation, De initiis poëseos scenicae apud Germanos. In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as Privatdocent in German language and literature, but devoted his principal attention to writing for the stage, and achieved considerable success with the comedy Die Brautfahrt, oder Kunz von der Rosen (1844). This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, In Breslau (1845) and the dramas Die Valentine (1846) and Graf Waldemar (1847). He at last attained a prominent position by his comedy, Die Journalisten (1853), one of the best German comedies of the 19th century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin, and in the following year took over, in conjunction with Julian Schmidt, the editorship of Die Grenzbolen, a weekly journal which, founded in 1841, now became the leading organ German and Austrian liberalism. Freytag helped to conduct it until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short time he edited a new periodical, Im neuen Reich. His literary fame was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel, Soll und Haben, which was translated into almost all the languages of Europe. It was certainly the best German novel of its day, impressive by its sturdy but unexaggerated realism, and in many parts highly humorous. Its main purpose is the recommendation of the German middle class as the soundest element in the nation, but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast which it draws between the homely virtues of the Teuton and the shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the Jew. As a Silesian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic neighbours, and being a native of a province which owed everything to Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian hegemony over Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea in his Grenzboten gained him the friendship of the duke of SaxeCoburg-Gotha, whose neighbour he had become, on acquiring the estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the duke's request Freytag was attached to the staff of the crown prince of Prussia in the campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Wörth and Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, Die verlorene Handschrift (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German university life what in Soll und Haben he had done for commercial life. The hero is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up in his search for a manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious to an impending tragedy in his domestic life. The book was, however, less successful than its predecessor. Between 1859 and 1867 Freytag published in five volumes Bilder aus der deutschen Vergangenheit, a most valuable work on popular lines, illustrating

work with a similar patriotic purpose, Die Ahnen, a series of historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German family from the earliest times to the middle of the 19th century. The series comprises the following novels, none of which, however, reaches the level of Freytag's earlier books. (1) Ingo und Ingreban (1872), (2) Das Nest der Zaunkönige (1874), (3) Die Brüder vom deutschen Hause (1875), (4) Marcus König (1876), (5) Die Geschwister (1878), and (6) in conclusion, Aus einer kleinen Stadt (1880). Among Freytag's other works may be noticed Die Technik des Dramas (1863); an excellent biography of the Baden statesman Karl Mathy (1869); an autobiography (Erinnerungen aus meinen Leben, 1887); his Gesammelte Aufsätze, chiefly reprinted from the Grenzboten (1888); Der Kronprinz und die deutsche Kaiserkrone; Erinnerungsblätter (1889). He died at Wiesbaden on the 30th of April 1895.

Freytag's Gesammelte Werke were published in 22 vols. at Leipzig (1886-1888); his Vermischte Aufsätze have been edited by E. Elster, vols. (Leipzig, 1901-1903). On Freytag's life see, besides his autobiography mentioned above, the lives by C. Alberti (Leipzig, 1890) and F. Seiler (Leipzig, 1898).

FRIAR (from the Lat. frater, through the Fr. frère), the English generic name for members of the mendicant religious orders. Formerly it was the title given to individual members of these orders, as Friar Laurence (in Romeo and Juliet), but this is not now common. In England the chief orders of friars were distinguished by the colour of their habit: thus the Franciscans

or Minors were the Grey Friars; the Dominicans or Preachers
were the Black Friars (from their black mantle over a white
habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from their
white mantle over a brown habit): these, tegether with the
Austin Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant
orders-Chaucer's "alle the ordres foure." Besides the four
great orders of friars, the Trinitarians (q.v.), though really
canons, were in England called Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the
Crutched or Crossed Friars were often identified with them, but
were really a distinct order; there were also a number of lesser
orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by the second
council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these orders
and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
The difference between friars and monks is explained in article
MONASTICISM. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also
the monastic orders.
canons regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among

See Fr. Cuthbert. The Friars and how they came to England,
pp. 11-32 (1903); also F. A. Gasquet, English Monastic Life, pp. 234-
249 (1904), where special information on all the English friars is
coveniently brought together
(E. C. B.)

FRIBOURG (Ger. Freiburg], one of the Swiss Cantons, in the western portion of the country, and taking its name from the town around which the various districts that compose it gradually gathered. Its area is 646-3 sq. m., of which 568 sq. m. are classed as "productive" (forests covering 119 sq. m. and vineyards 8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers or eternal snow. It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest summits (of which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in the Gruyère district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known being probably the Moléson (6582 ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). But it is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and cattle, and is the original home of the " Ranz des Vaches," the melody by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking time. It is watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tributaries the Singine or Sense and the Glâne) that flows through the canton from north to south, and traverses its capital town. The upper course of the Broye (like the Sarine, a tributary of the Aar) and that of the Veveyse (flowing to the Lake of Geneva) are in the southern portion of the canton. A small share of the lakes of Neuchâtel and of Morat belongs to the canton, wherein the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or Schwarzsee. A sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there are other such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, the main line from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourg running through

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