Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but inscriptions prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops of the empire, and it may be assumed that the country passed within the sphere of Roman influence, though hardly within the pale of Roman civilization.

For bibliography see AFRICA, ROMAN.

GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, BARON VON (17661852), German statesman and political writer, was born at Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the 25th of January 1766. After studying law at the universities of Leipzig and Göttingen, he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, whom in 1791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards appointed the prince's envoy at. Paris, where he remained till the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left side of the Rhine to serve any other state than France, compelled him to resign his office (1811). He then retired to Vienna, and

GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier, was born at De Ruyter, Madison county, New York, on the 28th of June 1836. He was educated at an academy at Rome, New York, where at the age of seventeen he became a bank clerk. In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as book-in 1812 he took part in the attempt to excite a second insurrection keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house of the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was cashier in 1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively assistant cashier (1868), vice-president (1882), and president (1891) of the First National Bank of Chicago, one of the strongest financial institutions in the middle west. He was chosen in 1892 president of the board of directors of the World's Columbian Exposition, the successful financing of which was due more to him than to any other man. In politics he was originally a Republican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the party in 1880, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884, however, He supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency, and came to be looked upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President Cleveland, after his second election, offered Gage the post of secretary of the treasury, but the offer was declined. In the "free-silver" campaign of 1896 Gage laboured effectively for the election of William McKinley, and from March 1897 until January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets successively of Presidents McKinley and Roosevelt. From April 1902 until 1906 he was president of the United States Trust Company in New York City. His administration of the treasury department, through a more than ordinarily trying period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking toward the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the relations between the government and the National banks.

GAGE, THOMAS (1721-1787), British general and governor of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel in the 44th foot in-March 1751. In 1754 he served in America, and he took part in the following year in General Braddock's disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal. He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general in 1761, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenantgeneral. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts, and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culminated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William) Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782, and died on the 2nd of April 1787.

GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the performance of an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure to carry it out. The word also appears in "engage," and is taken from the O. Fr., as are "wage," payment for services, and" wager," bet, stake, from the collateral O. Fr. waige. These two words are from the Low Lat. wadiare, vadiare, to pledge, vadium, classical Lat. vas, vadis, but may be from the old Teutonic cognate base seen in Gothic wadi, a pledge (cf. Ger. wetten, to wager); this Teutonic base is seen in Eng. "wed," to marry, i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth. gawadjon, to betrothe). A particular form of giving a "gage" or pledge was that of throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a judicial combat, the glove being the "pledge" that the parties would appear on the field; hence the common phrase " to throw down the gage of defiance" for any challenge (see GLOVE and WAGER).

against Napoleon in Tirol. On the failure of this attempt he left Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army (1813), and became a member of the board of administration for north Germany. In 1814 he was appointed administrator of the Orange principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king of the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister. In 1815 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and succeeded in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable augmentation of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy at the German diet, but was recalled, at the instance of Metternich, owing to his too independent advocacy of state constitutions. In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at Hornau, near Höchst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take an active share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at Hornau on the 22nd of October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote a history of the German nation (Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols., Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several other books on subjects connected with history and social and political science. Of most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, Mein Anteil an der Politik, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845). Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained considerable eminence:

FRIEDRICH BALDUIN, Freiherr von Gagern (1794-1848), the eldest, was born at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1794. He entered the university of Göttingen, but soon left, and, taking service in the Austrian army, took part in the Russian campaign of 1812, and fought in the following year at Dresden, Kulm and Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took part in the campaigns of 1815, and, after studying another year at Heidelberg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of the German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took part in the Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being promoted to the rank of general, was sent on an important mission to the Dutch East Indies to inquire into the state of their military defences. In 1847 he was appointed governor at the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the spring of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the revolutionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government of Baden to take the command against the insurgent "free companies" (Freischaaren). At Kandern, on the 20th of April, he made a vain effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was about to order his troops to attack when he was mortally wounded by the bullets of the insurgents. His Life, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg and Leipzig, 1856-1857), was written by his brother Heinrich von Gagern.

HEINRICH WILHELM AUGUST, Freiherr von Gagern (17991880), the third son, was born at Bayreuth on the 20th of August 1799, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo. Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at Heidelberg, Göttingen and Jena, and in 1819 went for a while to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832 was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the Burschenschaft, and he now threw himself into open opposition to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833. Henceforth he lived in comparative retirement, cultivating a

farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally pub- | documents, together with portraits and prints, and had copies lishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution made of a great number of the most curious antiquarian objects, of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political such as seals, tombstones, stained glass, miniatures and tapestry. life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian In 1711 he presented the whole of his collections to the king. administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation The bulk of them is preserved in the Bibliothèque Nationale of a united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian library at Oxford. preliminary convention (Vorparlament) of Frankfort he deeply See G. Duplessis, Roger de Gaignières (Paris, 1870); L. Delisle, impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of Cabinet des manuscrits, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, Les Portraits his views; with the result that when the German national aux crayon des XVI et XVIIe siècles (Paris, 1884); Ch. de parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first president. Grandmaison, Gaignières, ses correspondants et ses collections de His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist portraits (Niort, 1892). party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing split between the Great Germans (Grossdeutschen), who wished the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little Germans (Kleindeutschen), who realized that German unity could only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken. On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian members had left the cabinet, Gagern became head of the imperial ministry, and on the 18th he introduced (known as the Gagernsche Programm) according to which Austria was to be excluded from the new federal state, but bound to it by a treaty of union. After a severe struggle this proposal was accepted; but the academic discussion on the constitution continued for weary months, and on the 20th of May, realizing the hopelessness of coming to terms with the ultra-democrats, Gagern and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted to influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good results from the vacillating policy of Prussia, he retired from the contest, and, as a major in the service of the SchleswigHolstein government, took part in the Danish War of 1850. After the war he retired into private life at Heidelberg. In 1862, misled by the constitutional tendency of Austrian politics, he publicly declared in favour of the Great German party. In 1864 he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring in 1872 when the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd of May 1880.

a programme

MAXIMILIAN, Freiherr von Gagern (1810-1889), the youngest son, was born at Weilburg on the 26th of March 1810. Up to 1848 he was a government official in Nassau; in that year he became a member of the German national parliament and undersecretary of state for foreign affairs. Throughout the revolutionary years he supported his brother's policy, became a member of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the national movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In 1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service as court and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign affairs. In 1871 he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life member of the Upper Chamber (Herrenhaus). He died at Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.

See Allgemeine deutsche Biographic, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878) and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).

GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar celebrated by the Parsees at six seasons of the year which correspond with the six periods of creation: (1) Maidhyozaremaya (mid spring), (2) Maidhyoshema (midsummer), (3) Paitishahya (season of corn), (4) Ayatkrema (season of flocks), (5) Maidhyarya (winter solstice), (6) Hamas pathmaedha (festival of sacrifices).

GAIGNIÈRES, FRANÇOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French genealogist, antiquary and collector, was the son of Aimé de Gaignières, secretary to the governor of Burgundy, and was born on the 30th of December 1642. He became écuyer (esquire) to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards to Louis Joseph's aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed governor of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to make a collection of original materials for history generally, and, in particular, for that of the French church and court. He brought together a large collection of original letters and other

GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE (1755-1829), French hellenist, was born in Paris on the 4th of July 1755. In 1791 he was appointed deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the Collège de France. During the Revolution he quietly performed his professional duties, taking no part in politics, although he possessed the faculty of ingratiating himself with those in authority. In 1815 he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in the royal library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies. Gail imagined that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle his learning and professional success, and there was a standing quarrel between him and his literary opponents, the most distinguished of whom was P. L. Courier. He died on the 5th of February 1829. Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was devoted to his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for having rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828). He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based on the principles of the school of Port Royal. His communications to the Académie des Inscriptions being coldly received and seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast compilation in 24 volumes, which he called Le Philologue, containing a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography, archaeology, and various authors.

See "Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscriptions, ix.; the articles in Biographie universelle (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopadie (by C. F. Bähr); a list of his works will be found in J. M. Quérard, La France littéraire (1829), including the contents of the volumes of Le Philologue.

GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Tarn, on the right bank of the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi on the railway from that city to Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388; commune, 7535. The churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from the 13th and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen, of the Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors. The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal of first instance, and a communal college. Its industries include the manufacture of lime and wooden shoes, while dyeing, woodsawing and flour-milling are also carried on; it has a considerable trade in grain, flour, vegetables, dried plums, anise, coriander, &c., and in wine, the white and red wines of the arrondissement having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round the Benedictine abbey of St Michel, founded in the 10th century.

GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian, was born at Ostel, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated for the bar, but after finishing his studies adopted a literary career, ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. He was already a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belleslettres (1760), when, after the publication of the three first volumes of his Histoire de la rivalité de la France et d'Angleterre, he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third class (Académie française) in 1803. For forty years he was the intimate friend of Malesherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806. Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts,

and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative | the spring of 1727. His father, who carried on the business of a is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l'Angleterre (in 11 vols., 1771-1777); and among his other works may be mentioned Essai de rhétorique française, à l'usage des jeunes demoiselles (1745), often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author; Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne (1757); Histoire de François Ier (7 vols., 1776-1779); Histoire des grandes querelles entre Charles V. et François Ier (2 vols., 1777); Histoire de Charlemagne (2 vols., 1782); Histoire de la rivalité de la France et de l'Espagne (8 vols., 1801); Dictionnaire historique (6 vols., 1789-1804), making part of the Encyclopédie méthodique; and Mélanges lilléraires, containing éloges on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille, La Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.

(or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on the 2nd of August of the same year. He lies buried at Kew.

including 220 portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and 3 in aquatint. At the date of his death 56 paintings remained on hand: these, along with 148 drawings, were then exhibited. In his earlier days he made a practice of copying works by Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), Titian, Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not in a spirit of servile reproduction.

Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish likings, a lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough | embodiment of the artistic temperament; delighting in nature and "the look of things," insatiable in working, fond of music and the theatre hardly less than of painting-a warm, rich person- Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential eleality, to whom severe principle was perhaps as foreign as de- ment of portraiture-truthful likeness. In process of time he liberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his death was advanced in the rendering of immediate expression, while he not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the musician somewhat receded in general character. He always made his Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of mental sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, distinguished. Unity aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried. of impression is one of the most marked qualities in his work; Mrs Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, sur- he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he wrought vived her husband ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very wilful Gainsborough, if he ever had a tiff with her, would write a pacify-some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result. ing note, confiding it to his dog Fox, who delivered it to the lady's pet spaniel Tristram. The note was worded as in the person of Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied in the best of humours, as from Tristram to Fox.

Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance; but Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a reconciliation. It is difficult to say which stands the higher of the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace, spirit, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part, and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of "Lady Ligonier," "Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," "Master Buttall (the Blue Boy)," now in Grosvenor House," Mrs Sheridan and Mrs Tickell," "Orpin, the parish clerk " (National Gallery), "the Hon. Mrs Graham " (Scottish National Gallery), his own portrait (Royal Academy), " Mrs Siddons" (National Gallery); also" the Cottage Door,"" the Market Cart," ,"" the Return from Harvest," "the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm" (destroyed by fire), and "Waggon and Horses passing a Brook " (National Gallery-this was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast number of drawings and sketches.

A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual works by Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics as a painter.

He painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later
years. For portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft.
long; there was but little light in his painting-room, and he
often worked in the evenings. He kept his landscape work
distinct from his portraiture, not ever adding to the latter a fully
| realized landscape background; his views he never signed or
dated-his likenesses only once or twice. His skies are constantly
cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming
rain, or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his
landscapes is somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-
groups or in portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plain-
tive than mirthful. It should be acknowledged that, whether
in portraiture or in landscape, the painter's mannerisms of
execution increased in process of time-patchings of the brush,
tufty foliage, &c.; some of his portraits are hurried and flimsy,
with a minimum of solid content, though not other than artistic
in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms:-" What makes the
difference between man and man is real performance, and not
genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous
for a person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours
smelt offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is
just as material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and
drawing of a picture." "The eye is the only perspective-master
needed by a landscape-painter."

AUTHORITIES.-In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor
of Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the
artist's fortunes at starting, published A Sketch of the Life and
Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough. He had quarrelled with the
painter at Bath, partly because the latter had undertaken to do a
portrait of him as a gift, and then neglected the work, and finally,
in a huff, bundled it off only half done. The crucial question here is
whether or not Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform
any
nesse's book is in part adverse to Gainsborough, and more particu-
such gratuitous work, and this point has been contested. Thick-
larly so to his wife. Reynolds's "Lecture" on Gainsborough,
replete with critical insight, should never be lost sight of as a leading
document. In 1856 a heedfully compiled Life of Thomas Gains-
borough was brought out by T. W. Fulcher. This was the first
substantial work about him subsequent to Allan Cunningham's
lively account (1829) in his Lives of the Painters. Of late years a
great deal has been written, mainly but not by any means exclusively
(two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur Bell (1902); Sir W. M.
Conway, Artistic Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough (1886);
Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903); G. M. Brock-Arnold (1881).
G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in Germany (1904)
(W. M. R.)
under the title Gainsborough.

Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at Ipswich, were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston. His first great hit was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord Nugent. With a likeness of Mr Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided advance in artistic type, and his style became fixed towards 1768. The date of the "Blue Boy" is somewhat uncertain: most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark. This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is said that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confuting a dictum of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour unsuitable for the main light of a work. But, if the picture was produced before 1778, the date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-from the critical or technical point of view:-Sir Walter Armstrong cherished and often-repeated tradition must be given up. A full-length of the duke of Norfolk was perhaps the latest work to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait of Elizabeth, duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, has aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not long after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed the Duchess of Devonshire," does really represent that lady, is by no means certain. It was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in London immediately after it had been purchased by Messrs Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a long time elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1901, through the agency of a man named Pat Sheedy, it was given up to the American detectives working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold to Mr Pierpont Morgan.

Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300,

GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or Gainsborough parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England; on the right (E.) bank of the Trent. Pop. of urban district (1901) 17,660. It is served by the Lincoln-Doncaster joint line of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, by which it is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central railway. The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century, excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish churches are modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, enlarged in the 16th, is a picturesque building, forming three sides of a quadrangle, partially timber-framed, but having a beautiful oriel window and other parts of stone. There is also