The Chancellor of a Cathedral is an officer who superintends the religious services.

The Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster presides either in person or by deputy in all matters of equity relating to lands holden of the king as Duke of Lancaster. His salary is £2000 a year; that of the vice-chancellor, £600. The Chancellors of the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge are elected for life by the respective corporate bodies of which they are the heads. In both these universities the duties of the chancellor are in nearly all cases discharged by a vice-chancellor.

In the new constitution of the universities of Scotland, chancellors are elected by the general council of each university; in the University of London the chancellor is appointed by the crown; in each case the vice-chancellor is nominated by the chancellor.

The Chancellor of the Exchequer is under-treasurer, and holds the seal of the exchequer. The office of lord high treasurer is now executed by the lords commissioners of the Treasury. The chancellor of the exchequer is the principal finance minister of the crown, a member of the cabinet, and a commoner: the office sometimes has been held by the prime minister when he was a member of the House of Commons. The salary attached to the office is £5000 a year.

The Chancellor of the Order of the Garter, and other orders of knighthood, seals and authenticates the formal instruments of the chapter, and keeps the register of the order. CHAN CELLOR OF SCOTLAND. As in England, the chancellor of Scotland was always a high officer of the crown, and had great influence with the king and authority in his councils. As in England, too, that authority at length extended itself beyond its former limits, and affected the whole judicial power of the kingdom. Its operation and effect in the two countries, however, were different; for while in England the chancellor only carved out for himself a jurisdiction in equity, in Scotland he reached the head of the administration of justice, and sat in a court which dispensed both equity and common law, and the course of proceedings in which all the other judicatures of the realm were bound to follow.

By article 24 of the treaty of Union (1707) it was provided that there should in future be but one great seal for the United Kingdom, and that a seal should be kept and used in Scotland for such private rights or grants as had usually passed the great seal of Scotland. The office of chancellor of Scotland then properly expired, and none have been appointed to it since the Earl of Seafield, who was chancellor at the time of the Union.

CHAN'CERY. See CHANCELLOR. CHAN'DA. A district in the chief-commissionership of the Central Provinces, British India, lies between 19° 31' and 20° 53′ N. lat., and between 78° 52′ and 80° 59' E. lon. The area is 9700 square miles, and the population 550,000.

Except in the low-lying region in the extreme west, along the Wardha River, Chanda is thickly dotted with hills, sometimes rising isolated from the plain, sometimes in short spurs or ridges, all running towards the south. East of the Wainganga River the hills increase in height, and form a broad table-land, at its highest point about 2000 feet above the sea. The Wainganga flows through the centre of the district from north to south, till it meets the Wardha at Seoni, where their united streams form the Pranhita. The eastern regions of Chanda are drained by the head-waters of the Mahanadi, which flows in a north-easterly direction, and by the Indravati. Each of these rivers receives the waters of many large streams, which in their turn are fed by countless rivulets from the hills. In many places the streams have been formed into lakes by throwing up dams across the sloping lands which they intersect. Such artificial lakes are found in greatest numbers in the Garhbori

and Brahmapuri parganas; as many as thirty-seven can be seen at once from the heights of Perzagarh. To the abundance of its rivers Chanda owes the luxuriance of its forests, which everywhere fringe the cultivated lands. Along the eastern frontier the trees attain their finest growth, specially in Ahiri, where teak of large size abounds. To the lover of scenery and the sportsman Chanda offers singular attractions. The combinations of stream and lake, hill and forest, form a variety of scenes of picturesque beauty; while game of every description swarms in the woods and on the waters.

Of the total area of 9700 square miles only about 1000 are cultivated. Horned cattle, of indifferent quality, are bred in great numbers. Large flocks of sheep aboundprincipally kept for their wool and manure. The Godavari breed, found in the extreme south, have coats of hair rather than wool. Goats and poultry, both good of their kind, are plentiful.

The rainy season sets in about the middle of June, and lasts till the end of September. From the middle of September to the end of November malarious fever prevails throughout the district, exposure to the night air being especially dangerous.

CHANDA, the chief town and administrative headquarters of the district, has 17,000 inhabitants. It is surrounded by a continuous wall of cut stone, 5 miles in circuit, crowned with battlements. Inside the walls are detached villages and cultivated fields. The town stands amid charming scenery. Dense forest stretches to the north and east; on the south rise the blue ranges of Manikdrug; while westward opens a cultivated rolling country, with distant hills.

CHANDARNAGAR' (popularly Chundernagore, correctly Chandan-nagar, “ City of Sandalwood"), a French settlement within the boundaries of the Hoogly district, Bengal, is situated on the right bank of the Hoogly River, about 22 miles from Calcutta. Chandarnagar, occupied by the French in 1673, was acquired in 1688, and rose to importance in the time of Dupleix, during whose administration (1731-41) more than 2000 brick houses were erected, and a considerable maritime trade was developed. In 1757 it was bombarded by Admiral Watson, and then captured; the fortifications and houses were afterwards demolished. On peace being established the town was restored to the French in 1763. When hostilities broke out in 1794, it was again seized by the English; restored by treaty, 1802; retaken the same year, and held by them till the peace of 1815 definitely made it over to the French, 4th December, 1816. All the former grandeur of Chandarnagar has now passed away, and at present it is a quiet suburban town with but little external trade. It continues, however, the official seat of a French subgovernor, with a few soldiers. The area of the town and settlement is only 3 square miles, and the population 23,000.

CHANG-CHOW, a large city of China, about 35 miles from Amoy, which is its port, and with which it is connected by water, in the important province of Foo-kien. It contains nearly 1,000,000 inhabitants, and this independently of the suburbs. The streets are perpetually crowded and in full bustle. The shops are numerous and elegant, and well stocked with goods, and it is a centre for the silk trade. Even the bridges over the river are covered with shops and cooking stalls. The temples are large, and spacious grounds are attached to them. They have every appearance of great antiquity, and are said to be 1000 years old. Some of the idols are of gigantic size, about 16 feet high, and cut out of solid granite.

Chang-Chow is situated on a branch of the river Lung Kiang, which is crossed by a wooden plank bridge supported on twenty-five piles of stones. It is 800 feet long.

CHANGE-RINGING is that mode of ringing church bells which consists in continually changing their order,

though all are used in each change. It does not perhaps ency so much favour now as formerly, owing to the inereasing use of chiming machines, which take away from the necessity of hand-ringers; but it still numbers many devotees, and is a most engrossing pastime. Bunyan menties it as one of his favourite sins in his unregenerate time. The simplest peal gives ten changes with five bells, every bell moving one place at each change-"hunting up and down," as it is called. More elaborate peals are the Grandsire, the Treble Bob, &c., arranged, some of them, on a most intricate plan. See BELLS.

CHANNEL ISLANDS, a group of islands situated in the Bay of St. Michael, off the N.W. coast of France, between Normandy and Brittany, distant 120 miles S.W. of Southampton, and 10 miles from the nearest point on the coast of France. They represent the only territory attached to the Duchy of Normandy that has belonged to the English crown since the Conquest. There are three considerable islands, JERSEY, GUERNSEY, and ALDERNEY; two small, Sercq, Sark, or Gers, and Herm; the rest are cere rocks and rocklets, reefs, and banks. The population of the islands in 1881 was 87,731.

CHANNING, WILLIAM ELLERY, D.D., an American preacher, essayist, and philanthropist, was born Newport, Rhode Island, in 1780. Until the age of twelve he received such education as the schools of his native town orded; he was then sent to New London to prepare for college under the care of an uncle, and while there his father died. In 1794 he entered Harvard University, where be took his degree in 1798. In order to support himself while studying theology, he for some time became a prirate tutor in a wealthy family in Virginia, and there soon learned to detest the institution of slavery, against which he laboured so long and earnestly in his subsequent life. -This alone," he wrote home, "would prevent me from ever settling in Virginia. Language cannot express my detestation of it. Master and slave! Nature never made such a distinction or such a relation." He began to preach in 1802, and in the following year was ordained as pastor of a Congregational Church at Boston; for some years his theological views do not appear to have been definitely xed, and it was not until 1819 that he became an advocate of the Unitarian doctrines. His preaching early drew attention by its eloquence; but what brought him first into general notice in his own country were several sermens which he published during the war of 1812. In England his name was not much heard of till after the appearance of his "Remarks on the Character and Writings of John Milton," in 1827. In 1821 the degree of D.D. was conferred on him by Harvard University, in recognition of the talent displayed by him in his various sermons, in his Address on War," and his tract on the "Evidences of Christianity." In 1822 he visited Great Britain, where he made the acquaintance of many famous literary men, notably Wordsworth and Coleridge, the latter of whom wrote of him-"He has the love of wisdom and the wisdom of love."

He published an important work on the subject of slavery in 1835, which had the effect of rousing his countrymen from the apathy into which they had fallen with regard to this matter. He never identified himself, however, either in action or opinion, with the extreme and violent abolitionists. But the unaffected earnestness of his manner and the loftiness of his rebukes of timidity, ignorance, or apathy on such a subject, and the eloquence of his denunciations of a great social wrong, did much to help the cause which he had so much at heart. His death took place on the 2nd of October, 1842. Dr. Channing's Life has been written by his nephew, W. H. Channing, and his writings have become popular in England.

CHAN'SONS DE GESTES, of which at least a hundred are now known, form an ancient species of ballad

poetry of France of the greatest antiquarian value, overlooked in the strangest manner for centuries, until M. Michel edited the "Chanson de Roland," from the Bodleian Library copy at Oxford, in 1837. They are believed to date from the eleventh century, and are among the earliest specimens of the poetry of modern languages. They are narrative poems, each limited to one heroic subject, in ten-syllabled verse usually, and rhymed by ASSONANCE. The "Roland" runs to 4001 lines, and narrates the death of the great paladin of Charlemagne at Roncesvaux. We give just two lines, to show the archaic nature of the French and the assonant rhyme:

"Quant Rollanz vit l'arcivesque qu'est morz, Senz Oliver une mais n'out si grant dol." ("When Roland saw that the archbishop was dead," &c.)

CHANT, a peculiar kind of short musical phrase to which the Canticles and Psalms are sung in the service of the Western churches. The chant of the Roman Catholic Church, or Gregorian chant, differs somewhat from that of the English Church, or Anglican chant, which is derived from it.

Gregorian Chant.-The object of the chant is to provide a musical setting for prose portions of the service, of such great flexibility that sentences, of whatever length they may be, can be sung to it. This apparently impossible task is accomplished by one note of the chant being used as a reciting note, upon which nearly the whole of the sentence to be chanted is sung, with proper emphasis on the words, as in a sort of recitative, till only just enough syllables are left to complete the musical phrase, one syllable to each note of the tune. This is indicated to the chorister by pointing. Thus, to quote an example from the excellent work of Sir F. Oakeley ("Gregorian Psalter," 1843), the words of the Psalter would be "pointed" thus:—

My soul truly waiteth I still upon God: for of Him com | eth my salvation.

And they would be sung thus:

The effect can hardly be written in music, for it dates from a time when music was yet unmeasured, before the ear had so learned to long for measured music, with its regular accent and rhythmical groups, that anything irregular seems unlovely. The Gregorian chant when truly performed is an exquisite work of art, for while the succession of notes is the same through all the Psalm chanted, yet no two verses are alike; for the length of the notes and the emphasis of the accent varies incessantly with the requirements of the syllables to be sung. If it were necessary to put the above example into modern dress we should have

to write thus:

...waiteth still up - on God, ... cometh my sal va- tion. But the very next verse would have to be written in notes of quite other accent and value. The difficulty of singing in this way is considerable, so that the strictly measured system is often adopted with Gregorians, to the utter vulgarization of this fine and truly noble specimen of the antique flexible music, which is far fitter for its object than its modern cast-iron descendant. The Gregorian chants are not on one pattern: some have very few notes, some a

great many, and each one has several forms, varieties of "endings," &c., but the method of using them all is as above. It will be seen from the above example that they consist of five parts-the intonation, the first reciting note, the mediation, the second reciting note, and the ending. The reciting notes are the dominant of the mode used, the chants being written in the ecclesiastical modes [see MODES ECCLESIASTICAL]; and the intonation is used only at the first verse of a Psalm. These ancient melodies are sometimes very difficult to harmonize, being originally written without any view of harmony, and in scales or modes of a few notes only, so that our modern progressions are not possible without crudeness. In the hands of an accomplished organist who uses harmonies varying with the accent and the sentiment of each verse, and above all of a nature suitable to the old-world feeling of these ancient tunes, they give to the religiously-minded musician a devotional pleasure and depth of feeling hardly otherwise attainable. Something of the prayers of so many ages and generations of men breathed through these few simple notes seems to cling around them; and that this is no mere fancy the very latest scientific doctrine, the "survival of the fittest," might be adduced to show, for many of these tunes are believed to be fifteen or sixteen centuries old.

Anglican Chant.-This is a far easier mode of chanting, peculiar to the English Church, and dating from soon after the Restoration. Its melodies are constructed upon an unvarying pattern, except only that some are like the Gregorians, single chants, and some are double, the latter extending over two verses. Nay, even quadruple chants, covering four verses, are now occasionally used. We speak here only of the single chant, since the others are merely multiples of that. Another difference lies also in the fact that Anglican chants are harmonized for choral singing. The modification of structure from the Gregorian type is that the intonation is entirely abandoned, the mediation consists invariably of three notes, and the ending of five. Expressed musically the first reciting note and mediation form three bars, the second and ending four bars. This gives a curious and special feeling to chanting, which has certainly a charm in itself. The CANTORIS side of the choir sings one verse, and the DECANI responds with the next; so that the irregularity of a seven-bar rhythm is conquered by its being answered with an exactly similar grouping. The Anglican chant being a set melody with invariable accents, the Psalter has to be so pointed as to bring suitable syllables on the accented notes; the Gregorian chant follows the spoken words, but the words follow the Anglican chant, an important difference. Thus the Psalm given above might be pointed for an Anglican chant thus:

My soul truly waiteth | still upon God: for of Him | cometh my sal-vation.

Here at a and b one note of the chant is split into two, and sometimes one syllable is made to cover two notes, to accommodate the exigencies of the rhythm.

It is a fortunate thing for the dignity and beauty of church service that modern worshippers, even those of many Nonconformist churches, no longer share the unreasoning Puritan hatred of a practice older than the Christian religion itself (for it was used amongst the Jews in the Temple service), of "tossing the Psalms from one side to the other, with intermingling of organs,” as they sneeringly described it. See ANTIPHONAL.

CHANTILLY, a pretty little town, with 4000 inhabitants, in the department of Oise, France, situated on the Nonette, near an extensive forest containing altogether 6700 acres, to which it gives name. Chantilly is one of the principal centres of the lace manufacture in France; both the common flaxen lace and that made of silk, and called blonde, are extensively manufactured. The royal park, palaces, and waterworks of Chantilly were formerly famous all over Europe. During the first Revolution the palace built by the great Condé was sold and demolished, its contents having been first removed to Paris. After the restoration the ruins were concealed from view by plantations, the smaller palace repaired, and great improvements made; so that this building, with the magnificent gardens, grounds, and sheets of water that surround it, still constitutes a domain worthy of the admiration of foreigners and of the national pride. It belongs to the Orleans family. The hospital of Chantilly, founded by the princes of Condé, is a beautiful mass of building, and one of the best regulated establishments of the kind in France. In the parish church Admiral Coligny is buried. The town is famous as the scene of the great annual races of the French Jockey Club.

CHAN'TREY, SIR FRANCIS, was born on 7th April, 1782, at Norton, in Derbyshire, where his father was a small farmer. Chantrey was apprenticed to a wood carver in Sheffield, and while there turned his attention to modelling in clay, and afterwards tried his fortune as a modeller, first in Dublin, then in Edinburgh, and lastly in London, where the sculptor Nollekens was greatly instrumental in promoting his fortunes. In 1816 he was chosen an associate, and in 1818 a member, of the Royal Academy. In the following year he paid his first visit to Italy, where he was elected a member of the academies of Rome and Florence. In the life of a uniformly successful artist there are few incidents to record. Chantrey's career for the last twenty years of his life, as a monumental sculptor, was unrivalled. He was knighted by the queen in 1837. One of his very best works is the bronze statue of William Pitt, in Hanover Square. His last work of the equestrian class, the Wellington testimonial before the Royal Exchange, was executed nearly entirely by his assistant, Mr. Weekes. He died on the 25th of November, 1841, and was buried in a vault constructed by himself in his native parish of Norton, to which he was a benefactor by his will.

Chantrey had no children or very near relations, and he left the reversion of the bulk of his property to the president and council of the Royal Academy of Arts in London, for the promotion of British fine art in painting and sculpture. This is the well-known "Chantrey bequest." CHAN'TRY (Fr. chantrerie, from chanter, to sing), a private religious foundation, of which there were many in England before the Reformation, established for the purpose of keeping up a perpetual succession of prayers for the prosperity of some particular family while living, and the repose of the souls of those members of it who were deceased, but especially of the founder and other persons named by him in the instrument of foundation. The term is applied alike to endowments to provide for the chanting of masses, and to the chapels in which the chanting takes place. The French word oratoire appears to correspond to chantry.

Chantries were usually founded in churches already esting; sometimes in the churches of the monasteries, sometimes in the great cathedral or conventual churches, but very frequently in the common parish church. All at was wanted was an altar with a little area before it zd a few appendages. It was not unusual to have four, fire, or six different chantries in a common parish church; in the great churches, such as old St. Paul's in London, the Minster at York, and other ecclesiastical edifices of hat class. there were at the time of the Reformation thirty, rty, or fifty such foundations. Chantries were generally ested in the style of architecture prevailing at the time, and not in accordance with the style of the original fabric. The Act of 1 Edward VI. gave the king all the colleges, free chapels, chantries, hospitals, and fraternities or guilds which were not in the possession of King Henry VIII. Az Edward founded a considerable number of grammarbools, and the endowments were for the most part taken eat of tithes formerly belonging to religious houses, or out of chantry lands. These schools are now generally called King Edward VI.'s Free Grammar-schools; and many of them, such as that at Birmingham, are now well endowed in consequence of the improved value of their lands by balding and other operations.

CHAOS (χάος, from xa-, crude form of χαίνειν, το cape) was the Greek conception of a vast void whence arse gods, men, and all living and inorganic nature. In Lythology Chaos was the mother of Erebos (gloom) and Nex (night). The conception of chaos in Ovid, however, is rather that of Genesis-namely, of a confused inert mass of matter-than the original Greek idea of vacant space.

CHAP BOOKS is the name given to the rough tracts, frequently illustrated with a cheap coarse woodcut or two, sold all round the country by the travelling chapmen (crap or cheap, Old English for "market" or price, whence eur Cheapside, Eastcheap, &c.; ceapman, a merchant). The chap books of Charles I.'s time are simply invaluable to those who wish to know the feelings of the country folk, such as, for example, their detestation of Laud and his earch reforms. Their range of subjects was absolutely unlimited, from political matters, such as those mentioned, to tales and histories, songs and ballads, recipes and weather prognostications, &c. In fact they were the magazine, and often the library, of the poor folk among our forefathers. Many of these are of course in black letter. In the eighteenth century the chap book became degraded, was usually sold at a penny, and was an inferior production in every way. Halliwell's "Chap Books," &c., written for the Percy Society, and Ashton's excellent -Chap Books of the Eighteenth Century" (Lond. 1882), are among the best authorities on this interesting subject. CHAPEL (from the Low Latin Capella, the name of the shrine where St. Martin's capella, or small capa, cope, was preserved; hence applied to any small building for divine service not actually a church), a word common to many of the Languages of modern Europe, and used to designate a separate erection attached to a church or cathedral, or a domestic oratory, or a place of worship for a corporate body, such as a university chapel. The name is now generally also applied to a place of worship built apart from the parish church, such as chapels of ease or dissenting chapels. It is also the name for the working staff of a printing office, the meaning being derived from the fact of the first printing office in England having been set up by Caxton in a chapel of Westminster Abbey.

In England there is a great number of rural ecclesiastical edifices, especially in the northern counties, where the parishes are large, which are not, properly speaking, churches, though they are sometimes so called, but are chapels, and not unfrequently called parochial chapels. In the parish of Halifax there are twelve of these, all founded before the Reformation. In the parish of Man

chester, and in most of the parishes of Lancashire, such subsidiary foundations are numerous. Those foundations of this class which could be brought within the description of superstitious foundations were dissolved by the Act of 1 Edward VI. for the suppression of chantries; but it not unfrequently happened that the building itself continued to be used for religious worship in its reformed state, and remains to this day a place of Christian worship, the incumbent being supported by the casual endowments of the period since the Reformation, and especially by Queen Anne's Bounty, in which most of the incumbents of chapels of this class have participated.

The term chapel is used to designate those more private places for the celebration of religious ordinances in the castles or dwelling-houses of persons of rank. Most of the baronial residences, it is probable, had chapels of this kind. How splendid they sometimes were we may see in St. George's Chapel at Windsor. There are also chapels in the Colleges of Oxford and Cambridge, and in hospitals and other similar foundations.

Places of worship of modern foundation, especially those in towns, are called chapels of ease, being erected for the ease and convenience of the inhabitants when they have become too numerous for the limits of their parish church. Most of these are founded under special Acts of Parliament.

The word chapel is generally used to denote the places of worship erected by various sects of dissenters under the Act of Toleration, though the Society of Friends call theirs "meeting-houses." But a growing feeling in favour of the word church has lately arisen, and the Wesleyans, Congregationalists, Roman Catholics, &c., now usually adopt it. CHAPEL-EN-LE-FRITH, a market-town in the county of Derby, 5 miles N. from Buxton, and 169 from London by the Midland Railway. The parish contains 4170 inhabitants, many of whom are employed in cotton and paper manufactures, and in the adjacent lead and coal mines. The town is situated amid lofty hills.

CHAP'ELS ROYAL, the king's establishments for divine service, are of great antiquity in England, a full notice of the Chapel Royal of Edward IV. being given in the celebrated "Liber Niger Domûs Regis" (1461). Those remaining now are at St. James' Palace, at Whitehall, at the Savoy, in London; and St. George's Chapel at Windsor. The service at the first is attended by the royal family when in London, and admission is difficult to obtain for any one unconnected with the court. The choristers are educated at the cost of the chapel, and sing there exclusively. The Chapel Royal at Whitehall has a much simpler service, except the curious Maundy Thursday service held there on the day before Good Friday, for the distribution of the Queen's Alms, from time immemorial. The name was supposed by Spelman to be derived from the maunds (Old English for “ baskets") in which the royal gifts were contained; but it is now quite certain that the word is the Old English maundee, "command," from the Latin mandatum; and with special reference in this connection to the Mandatum novum in the Latin Vulgate, John xiii. 34, the "New Commandment, that ye love one another." On the first Maundy Thursday Christ washed his disciples' feet, and this has been imitated in a yearly ceremonial by the pope and the kings of England. It is now discontinued in this country, and with it the distribution of fish and bread; but the remainder of the service, the distribution of specially coined silver money (pence, twopence, threepence, and fourpence) and of wearing apparel to as many pairs of old men and women as the sovereign is years old, still continues. The names of deserving poor are sent in to the lord high almoner by clergymen of London for selection for this interesting ceremony.

CHAP'LAIN. A chaplain is properly a clergyman officiating in a chapel, in contradistinction to one who is the incumbent of a parish church. But it now generally

designates clergymen who are either residing in families of distinction, and actually performing religious services in the family, or who are supposed to be, though not actually so engaged. The 21 Henry VIII. limited the number of chaplains which noblemen and other persons may nominate. The speaker of the House of Commons appoints his chaplain, who reads prayers daily in the House before business commences. In the House of Lords prayers are read by the bishop last raised to the episcopal bench. The navy chaplain performs divine service on shipboard, visits the sailors when they are sick, and attends generally to the morals of the crew. In the army it is not necessary to appoint a chaplain to each regiment, but there are clergymen appointed for the army under the name of chaplains to the forces. They number about eighty, and are attached to the department of the chaplain-general -an office suppressed by the Duke of Wellington after 1815, but revived in 1846. He assists the War Office in selecting chaplains, and in regulating the religious matters of the army generally so far as the Church of England is concerned. The magistrates in quarter-sessions are required by 4 George IV. c. 64, to appoint a chaplain to every prison within their jurisdiction. A chaplain to a prison must be a clergyman of the Church of England, and be licensed by the bishop before he can officiate. His duties are pointed out by the above Act, and among other things he is required to keep a journal. The appointment and duties of chaplains in gaols are further regulated by 2 & 3 Vict. c. 56, and 26 & 27 Vict. c. 79 (1863). The reports of chaplains are sometimes of considerable interest, and frequently throw light upon the causes of crime. Chaplains are required to be appointed to every county lunatic asylum in England.

CHAPPE, CLAUDE, was born at Brulon, in Normandy, in 1763. It is said by his French biographers that, happening on some occasion in his youth to be separated from his friends, he conceived the idea of corresponding with them by means of signals, and that the result of his efforts to attain this end was the invention of the machine which he called a telegraph or a semaphore. Though inventions for a similar purpose had been previously suggested, as by Dr. Hook in England, and Amontons in his own country, it is uncertain whether M. Chappe was acquainted with them; and no doubt can exist that he is justly entitled to the honour of having invented both a particular system of signals, and the mechanism by which the operations are performed. This machine consisted of a vertical pillar of wood, at the top of which was a transverse beam 11 or 12 feet long, and at each extremity of the beam was a secondary arm, all being capable of adjustment to the pillar and to each other at any angle, and thus indicating letters of the alphabet or conventional signs. The invention was adopted by the French Legislative Assembly in 1792, and in an experiment as to its efficacy was found to be able to convey a message from Paris through all the intermediate stages to Lisle, a distance of 48 leagues, in 13 minutes 40 seconds. With some modifications it was soon afterwards adopted in this country, and was for a long time to be seen in use on the roof of the Admiralty. It has long since been superseded in England and France by the electric telegraph. M. Chappe's claim to the originality of the invention having been contested, and some invidious attacks made on its imperfections by some of his contemporaries, he fell into a profound melancholy, which terminated his life in 1805.

so important a rival that he is noticed by Shakspeare at some length, and with such particulars as clearly to point him out, in Sonnet 86-the "proud full sail of his great verse" being fully and generously admitted. His personal character appears to have been both respectable and amiable. He died in London on the 12th May, 1634, and was buried in the churchyard of St. Giles in the Fields, where his friend Inigo Jones erected a monument to his memory.

Chapman's published writings were numerous. But his memory is best preserved, and his reputation as a poetical imaginer and thinker most fully vindicated, by his free translations from the Greek, and especially by his spirited and vigorous version of the Iliad, full of Homeric fire, and still perhaps the best translation of that over-translated poem. Read against Pope's eighteenth-century travesty it is like the sun against gaslight. Its late republication is a judicious tribute to the improved taste of our time in poetical literature. The powerful impression produced by this grand work on a highly poetic mind is shown at its best in a noble sonnet by Keats, "On first looking into Chapman's Homer."

chapter, called chapter-houses. The buildings of this kind connected with the churches of Westminster and York are octagonal and of singular beauty.

The members of the College of Arms, that is, the king's heralds and pursuivants, are said to hold a chapter when they confer on the business of their office; and in like manner chapters of the order of the Garter are held.

CHARA CEÆ is a group of plants belonging to the CRYPTOGAMIA, and inhabiting pools and slow streams, to which they communicate a nauseous, offensive odour. They are highly interesting on account of the facility with which they exhibit under the microscope the circulation of the protoplasm. These plants are slender, very brittle, rooting in mud, and giving off at intervals whorls of leaves and branches which are similar to the stem. The nodes or points from which the leaves grow are composed of several small cells; the internodes, or portions between the nodes, are each composed of a single long tubular cell, which in the genus Chara is covered by small cells spirally arranged, originally proceeding from the nodal cells. In the only other genus, Nitella, this cortical layer does not exist. The reproductive organs are of two kinds, of an orange-red colour when ripe. The "globules," or male organs, are very small. The wall of each globule is composed of eight cells, the "shields;" from the inner surface of each shield a cell projects inwards, called the handle or manubrium. The inner end of the manubrium bears six small heads, and from each of them grow four coiled threads, divided by partitions into cells numbering from 100 to 200. Thus there are from 20,000 to 40,000 of these very small cells in each globule. As these mature, an antherozoid is formed in each-a slender spiral thread, thickened at one end, and with two long cilia at the other end, which, in the ripe state when the cells have burst,