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1137

GILBERTINE ORDER.

GILBERTINE ORDER.

1138

have been recorded, who gave promise of attaining great stature. upon these by the founder himself. There was a master or priorMost of these, however, died early, principally from a too rapid general at the head of all, and no action-at-law could be brought growth, some having arrived prematurely at the age of puberty, or defended without him. Members could only be admitted by and then as rapidly sunk into a premature old age. The phe- him, and he had to be a party in every deed of any Gilbertine nomena and reasons of this extreme growth are veiled in much house. From the registers of Lincoln we find proof that the obscurity, but the following ethnological and physiological ob- master generally united with particular priors and convents in servations throw some light upon the subject. The tendency of their ecclesiastical presentations. The master also joined in the families to reproduce in very remote descendants any abnormal surrender of the houses of the Order at the Dissolution. Altype which may once have been introduced into them. The great though the Order was founded for men and women, who lived in natural stature of some races, such as the Northern European, the same houses, yet their apartments were so arranged as to the Scandinavians, old Saxons, and other branches of the Teu- have no communication with each other, and in some houses tonic families. Such races probably had local centres in different men were admitted exclusively. Their habit is stated differently parts of Europe, but from emigration and conquest have become by different authors, some considering that it was a black cassock blended as population and civilisation have advanced, and the with a white cloak over it, and a hood lined with lamb's skin. type reappears. Original formation of unusual size, or sudden The nuns did not wear a white cloak, at least the engraving increase and deposit of osseous structure. While these last are from a picture by Hollar, prefixed to the account of the Order, accidental, amongst races of average middle height, yet tem- in the Monasticon Anglicanum,' omits it. Fosbroke states that perature, food, and other conditions conduce to produce them the garments of the canons were to be three tunics, one coat of amongst certain races. A large proportion of giants, it will be ob- full-grown lamb skins, and a white cloak sewed before, four served, are Irish, the climate of Ireland being humid like that of fingers in breadth, and having furs to put on if the cloak were Patagonia, and for strength and height that nation is almost un- not furred, and hood lined with lamb skins, and two pair of rivalled, without being actually the giants fabled by ancient stockings; a pair of woollen socks and day-shoes, and nightnavigators. The Patagonians are undoubtedly a remarkably tall slippers; as also a linen cloak for divine service. At time of race, averaging almost 6 ft. 10 in. While dwarfs cannot be bred, work they had a white scapulary. Their beds like the Cistercian there is no doubt that a race of gigantic men might as easily be monks. The prior and cellarer had boots reaching a little above reared as Flemish horses, or any other large domesticated breed of the knees to ride in; the dorterer kept other pairs of boots for cattle, and the stature of the natives of Potsdam, where Frederick I. such as rode out, but they were to restore them at their return. stationed his regiment of gigantic guards, is said to have been All the shoes of the canons were of red leather. The nuns had visibly increased. Many giants, as already mentioned, have five tunics, three for labour and two large cowls to be worn in come of a family of unusual height for many generations and the cloister, church, chapter, refectory, and dormitory. All had as a rule the size of children inclines to that of the father a coat of lamb skins, and an undergarment of coarse cloth if they more than that of the mother. Although not in general well would, and black linen caps. St. Gilbert himself founded no proportioned, some giants are perfect even in that respect, fewer than thirteen monasteries of the Order, four of them being So much so that in living examples it diminishes their ap-set apart for the reception of men only. The brethren and sisters parent height. It has been stated that in intellectual power in these amounted respectively to seven hundred and fifteen they are often inferior; but while their history shows that their hundred, although the funds, even at the time of the Dissolutemper is usually placid and even, their intellects do not appear, tion, were very insignificant, the whole amount of revenues of except in occasional instances, such as occur amongst ordinary the Gilbertine Order being not more than 2421l. 13s. 9d. men, inferior to the average. Their pulsation is slow, gene- The detailed history of these monasteries remains to be rally below the average, and their duration of life shorter, while written, having, as yet, only been sketched in brief outline by that of dwarfs is often longer. They have always been objects the monastic and county historians. The large collections of of public admiration, and many have realised by public exhibi- charters in the Manuscript Department of the British Museum tion, when they required it, a competency or fortune with which contain a great quantity of unedited materials which have as yet they have ended their days. (E. Gerhard, Griechische Mythologie, never been brought to bear upon the history of the Gilbertine 8vo. Berlin, 1854; E. J. Wood, Giants and Dwarfs, 8vo. | Order. The names and dates of the respective priors and masters, London, 1868; Köppen, Nordische Mythologie, 8vo. Berlin, 1837.) and some very fine specimens of seals still remain to be exGIGANTOMACHIA. [GIANTS, E. C. S., col. 1135.] amined. The following account of the twenty-six Gilbertine GILBERTINE ORDER. The precise year of the foundation houses, arranged in order of chronology, will be found to conof the Order of Sempringham, or, as it is also called, the Gilber- tain much that is new and interesting to the monastic archtine Order, by St. Gilbert, is not authenticated. The Annals of æologist. Derley place the foundation in the year 1131, whereas the Peterborough Chronicle, and Reyner, the monastic historian, consider it to be 1148; but, as we shall see in the list of houses farther on, Sempringham and Haverholme were founded in 1139, which may, perhaps, be taken for the earliest date in connection with this order, which appears to have been confined exclusively to England, and chiefly to the midland parts of the island.

The life of the founder, Gilbert, son of Sir Josceline de Sempringham, rector of the church of St. Andrew, at that place, is very fortunately preserved to us in the Cotton MS. Cleopatra B. i. fol. 37, b, a MS. of the 13th century, wherein is shown how he passed his youth in France, became a schoolmaster on his return, and was appointed to the churches of Sempringham and Tirington, where he lived with great devotion and rigorous abstinence. After his death (circ. 1188) he was canonized as a saint (in 1202), through the influence of Hubert Walter, Archbishop of Canterbury. Several miracles were performed by his agency, and, on the occasion of the translation of his remains in the year above mentioned, an enormous globe of fire was seen to descend from, and ascend thrice to heaven, over his tomb; when the stone was removed from his grave, his flesh was found converted into a red powder, "qualis esse dicitur virginum defunctarum," like that of departed virgins. Dugdale's editors print in full the institutions of St. Gilbert and his successors from an old manuscript belonging (1830) to Sir Roger Twysden, of East Peckham, Bart. The rule, which appears to be very carefully drawn up, was principally derived from the older rules of St. Augustine and St. Benedict; the nuns, or rather canonesses, following the Cistercian emendations of the rule of St. Benedict, while the canons were governed by that of St. Augustine. Several new and important regulations were, however, engrafted

ARTS. AND SCI. DIV.-SUP.

Sempringham, co. Linc., was founded for nuns and canons about 1139, and dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. Several new names of the masters of this house, who were also heads of the Order, may be added to those mentioned by Dugdale, among others Robert de Stigandby and Patrick de Midelton, mentioned as already dead in a charter dated 1326, Robert, a very early master, Richard, and Nicholaus in 1457. In one deed occurs the name "R. Prior of Sempringham and Bulington," a fact which seems to indicate that occasionally neighbouring monasteries were united under the rule of one individual. Several fine seals, executed at different periods for this monastery, are still extant. The priory church exists in a very perfect state.

Haverholm, co. Linc., was at first a Cistercian abbey, having been founded with that object in 1137. Two years later the Cistercians removed to Louth Park, and nuns and canons of the Gilbertine Order were introduced into the place by Alexander, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1139. This monastery was also dedicated to the Virgin Mary. A fine seal of this house is appended to a charter in the Harleian Collection, 44, E. 18.

St. Catherine's, at Lincoln, owes its origin to Bishop Robert de Cheineto, who established the Gilbertines in the city of Lincoln in 1148. No nuns existed within this monastery at the dissolution, nor are they mentioned in the royal confirmation of the foundation, by Henry II.

Chicksand, co. Bedf., was established about 1150, for canons and nuns, by Paganus de Bellocampo, or Beauchamp, and his Countess Rohaisa, and dedicated to the Virgin. No names of masters or priors of this house have been given, but John occurs in 1482, in a Harleian charter, 44, B. 26. The common seal is preserved to us by an impression in the Augmentation Office, 4 Ꭰ

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and a small seal, "ad causas," in the Harl. Ch. 44, C. 27. Watton, co. York, was built about 1150, on the site of an ancient nunnery which existed there, as far back as 686. Eustace Fitz-John, under direction of St. Gilbert, established nuns and canons here in a house dedicated to the Blessed Virgin. At Old Malton, in Yorkshire, about the same period, Eustace FitzJohn, according to Tanner, built a house for Gilbertine canons, and dedicated it to the Virgin Mary. In the time of King Stephen, five more monasteries were added to the number. Bullington, or Bulington, co. Linc., relating to which a large number of deeds exist which would throw additional light upon its history. Dugdale gives no names of priors, but the following come from the sources above mentioned, Henricus, Galfridus, W., and R., in the 13th century; Lambertus de Kyma at an early period; William, Symon, Gilbert, Roger, and Walter, in the 14th century. Several impressions of the common seal are appended to these deeds. Alringham, or Affingham, co. Linc., dedicated to the Blessed Virgin and to Saint Ethelwold, for nuns and canons. North Ormesby, otherwise known as NunOrmesby, co. Linc., founded by William, Earl of Albemarle, and Gilbert, son of Robert de Ormesby, for nuns and canons of the order, in honour of the Blessed Virgin. Catteley, co. Linc., founded by Peter de Belingey; and Tunstal, on an island near Redburn, co. Linc., for nuns only, by Reginald de Crevequer. Newstede on Ancolm, or Rucholm, co. Linc., was established before 1173, and dedicated to the Holy Trinity. The Priory of Shouldham, co. Norf., was founded in the time of Richard I. by the Earl of Essex. At Welles, or Mirmaud, between Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, a cell to the priory at Sempringham_was erected by Ralph de Hauville, in the reign of Richard I. or John. About this period must be referred the origin of Sixhill, or Sixle, co. Linc., of which the names of two priors, Hugh and Nicholas, 1242, will be new to students of monastic chronology. This house, like most of the others, was dedicated to the Virgin, and contained both nuns and canons. At Mattersey, or the island of Marsay, co. Cambr., was a Gilbertine house for six canons, dedicated to St. Helen, and founded by Roger FitzRanulph de Maresay before 1192. In or previous to the reign of King John, Godwin, a rich London citizen, established Gilbertines at Holland Brigge, Bridge End, or De Ponte Aslaci, co. Linc., and dedicated their priory to the honour of the Saviour. About the commencement of the reign of this king, St. Margaret's priory at Marlborough, co. Wilts, was instituted for the reception of the Sempringham order, and appears to have been of royal foundation; in later times the hospital of St. Thomas was annexed to it. St. Andrew's Priory at York was placed near the parish church of St. Andrew, in that city, by Hugh Murdac, about 1200, for the reception of twelve canons. From its position this priory was sometimes called St. Andrew's in Fishergate. Overton, on the south of the Tees, co. York, was established before 1203, by Alanus de Wilton, as a subordinate house to that of Sempringham. The foundation deed calls this place Overton, in Hertnes. Clattercote, co. Oxf., possessed a small house of the Gilbertines in the time of King John, dedicated to St. Leonard, and at one time a leper house. Elreton, Alreton, or Ellerton, in Spaldingmore on the Derwent, co. York, was established before 1212, by William Fitz-Peter, and dedicated to St. Mary and St. Laurence. Canons only were received in this priory. Fordham, or Bigynge, co. Cambr., was given by Henry III., in 1228, to the order of Sempringham, and shortly after a small number of Gilbertines settled there. The priory was dedicated to St. Peter and St. Mary Magdalen. About 1291, some canons of this order were placed in the City of Cambridge, at the old chapel of St. Edmund the King, near Peterhouse. Cole considers the priory was between Pembroke Hall and the Spittle, probably where Addenbrooke's Hospital now stands. Pulton, co. Wilts, possessed a Gilbertine priory, which was founded in honour of the Virgin Mary, by Thomas de Sancto Mauro about 1358, but it contained only a prior and two or three canons. Near the church at Hitchin, or New Bigging, co. Hertf., was a small priory of Gilbertine nuns, which Chauncy in his history has erroneously attributed to the Benedictine order. The earliest notice we have of this house, which afterwards became the school-house of Hitchin, is in the Patent Rolls of the 37th year of Edward III., 1363-4. GILT TOYS is the technical name for a large department of Birmingham manufactures, comprising trinkets and cheap imitations of jewellery. Copper or brass is usually the foundation metal, brought into the proper form by stamping and other mechanical processes, electro-gilt or silvered, and set with cheap stones or pieces of coloured glass. [JEWELLERY, E. C. vol. iv. col. 1014.]

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GIMBALS, also GIMBALDS or GIMBLES [COMPASS, THE MARINER'S, É. C. vol. iii. col. 108].

GIMP, or GYMP, an ornamental cord or twist, in which many threads of silk, cotton, or wool wind round a central thread, usually of fine wire; the cord, when twisted into various forms, serves as coat-lace, coach-lace, and trimming for dresses and upholstery.

GIN, COTTON. The trials made at Manchester in December, 1871, on the relative merits of different sorts of ginning machines, for extricating the cotton seeds from the fibres of the pod [COTTON MANUFACTURES AND TRADE, E. C. S. col. 638], were resumed in a second series in January and February, 1872. It was then found that further experiments would be necessary in India. The cotton arrives in England very dry, and the ginning at Manchester might, and probably does, produce results different from those which attend ginning in the country of its growth, where the cotton is fresher and moister. The problem is chiefly of importance in India, where attempts are being made to naturalize the finer staples of American cotton. A belief is entertained there that no form of roller-gin is so well suited as the saw-gin for this kind of cotton-an opinion, the correctness of which is disputed by the inventors and makers of the numerous kinds of roller-gin. At the London International Exhibition, 1872, various forms of cotton-gin were shown-viz., six varieties of the Indian churka, a metal foot-roller churka, Dobson and Barlow's knife roller-gin, and Messrs. Platt's improved Macarthy gin. Should the experiments now being made in India lead to definite results, English-made ginning machines in large number will be sent to India. If unpicked cotton could be packed closely into bales without crushing the seeds or injuring the fibres, it might be advantageous to bring it in that state to England. If ginned at Manchester the seeds might at once be sold for oil-pressing, the loose short fibres that cling to them might be rendered available for paper-making, and the husks would obtain a sale as manure. Experiments are in progress to determine whether, or to what extent, this can be done.

GINGHAM, a cotton cloth in which the coloured pattern is produced by weaving threads of different colours. It is exported largely to India, and in England is used for a variety of purposes in dress and upholstery. Cotton umbrellas are made of one-colour ginghams.

GINGIVITIS (gingira, the gums), inflammation of the gums. [TEETH, DISEASES OF, E. C. vol. viii. col. 60.]

GINGLYMUS (viyyλuuds, a hinge), a name applied to the joints of the body, such as the elbow, which are restricted to movements of flexion and extension. Such joints are also termed ginglymoid, from their likeness to a hinge.

GLACIAL ACID (glacies, ice). This term is applied to acetic, carbolic, and other acids when they are of such strength as to crystallize at ordinary temperatures: also to acids generally when they assume that form at any temperature. The strongest acetic acid, which contains 79 per cent. of real acid, crystallizes under 50° Fahrenheit.

GLAIRE, or white of egg, contains about 12 per cent. of albumen; to which substance it owes its chief use in the arts as a cement and a glaze or gloss. It is easier to obtain, and less offensive to use, than the albumen from blood.

GLAISHER'S FACTORS, in Meteorology, an empirical formula deduced from the readings for a long series of years of Daniell's hygrometer and the dry and wet bulb thermometers. For a table of these factors, see Parkes' 'Manual of Practical Hygiène,' p. 391.

GLAIVE, a weapon of war used by infantry. It consisted of a long cutting blade of iron inserted into the end of a long pole or staff, and is believed to have been first used in imitation of the Celtic practice of fixing a sword to the end of a pole, and derives its name from the Welsh word cleddyo, a sword, on which account those weapons are frequently styled " Welsh glaives." The form of the blade resembled that of a broad sword, and this kind of weapon is in use among the Chinese Tartars up to the present day.

GLANDULA (dim. of glans, an acorn), in Anatomy, a name given to the smaller glands, or minute secreting organs of the body, such as the G. ceruminose which form the wax of the ear; G. myrtiformes, the small bodies that remain after rupture of the hymen; G. odoriferæ, the glands planted about the base of the glans penis of males, and the glans clitoridis of females; G. supra renales, which are seated on the kidney, and subject to structural degeneracy in Addison's disease; and the G. Pacchioni, the granules, improperly termed glands, found in the track of the superior longitudinal sinus of the brain.

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GLASS, ANCIENT.

GLASS, ANCIENT. The origin of the art of making glass and the discovery of this valuable and beautiful material are enveloped in much obscurity. It probably arose from the observation of some of the slags accidentally produced by combustion in kilns. By the ancients its origin was attributed to the Phoenicians, but its first appearance is in the remains of ancient Egypt. Glass bottles holding red wine are depicted in the tombs of the 4th dynasty; and in those of the 12th, glass-blowers are seen at work on a dark-green bottle material. Under the subsequent dynasties various small vases in glass were made, for the toilet, of the shape of the Greek amphora, oenochoe, and alabastos; and columns or cylinders of the same material for holding kohl or stibium for painting the eyelids and brows appear. All these objects are of an opaque glass, rarely transparent, and of divers colours, the background generally blue, with wavy, vandyked, or feathered streaks of white, yellow, and red glass worked in, like those of the Venetian glass. The Egyptians extensively used glass to imitate precious stones: an opaque red to counterfeit jasper, green for Amazon stone, dark blue for lapis-lazuli; and slices of this material were inlaid in a kind of cloisonné, mosaic, or enamel, in boxes, fayence tiles, hands and eyes of mummies, and wherever required. That this glass was common at the time of the 18th dynasty is shown by a beautiful little bottle of opaque light blue glass in the British Museum, on which the name and titles of Thothmes III., about B.c. 1000, are painted in yellow.

GLASS, ANCIENT.

and

entirely from the dated massive vase of the older Assyrian epoch.
There can be no doubt that the Phoenicians exercised if they did
not discover the art at a very early period. According to the
legend, Phoenician traders returning from Egypt to Syria with a
cargo of natron or soda, while cooking on the sand under Mount
both
transparent, have
opaque
Carmel, accidentally produced and discovered glass. Tyre and,
later, Sidon became subsequently sites of glass manufacture, and
specimens of Phoenician glass,
been discovered on the spot. This material was one of the staples
of their trade, and small glass vases, like those of Egypt already
cited, of a pale or dark blue, white fawn or white colour, with
zigzag lines, white, yellow, or light blue, which do not pass
through the whole substance, moulded on sand, were exported by
the Phoenicians to Asia Minor, Greece, and the Isles of the
It is remarkable that none bear
Egean, and Etruria. They were highly prized, and sometimes
mounted on gold stands, and were in use from the fourth cent.
B.C. to the Christian era.
Phoenician inscriptions. Opaque glass beads of a variety of colours
similar to those now imported and used by the natives of
Ashantee and the Gold Coast were extensively exported by the
Phoenicians, who inoculated the natives of Africa with the taste
for these ornaments, and exported them to the then distant Britain.
The furnaces of Sidon maintained their reputation till the days
of the Roman Empire, when they manufactured and exported
handled basin, with the names of Sidonian manufacturers stamped
cups and other glass objects, and a kind of cantharus or two-

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Fig. 1. Blue glass bottle with name of Thothmes III.

Fig. 2. Green glass vase with name of Sargon.

A square bezel of a ring of dark-blue glass, imitating lapis lazuli, of the same collection, has also the name and titles of the same monarch. Many of these objects have been found at Memphis, and the analysis of the colouring material shows that light blue was produced by copper, darker blue by cobalt, violet by manganese, black by iron. The use of transparent glass is not of so early a date. A bead of supposed light olive-green glass, on which has been cut the name and titles of Hatasu, the sister of Thothmes III., would, if authentic and undoubtedly glass, bring it up to the same period, but the bead is supposed to be obsidian. Bottles or flasks of dark green, light blue, white, and other colours have been found in tombs of the 26th dynasty, about B.C. 650, and this is the earliest positively known use of that material in Egypt.

After the foundation of Alexandria, that city became a great emporium and site of the glass trade, which it owed to the excellence of its sand, and many specimens of glass found in Rome, especially those with subjects in relief, like camei, were probably made in Egypt, many having Egyptian or pseudoEgyptian subjects. Under the Roman Empire the Alexandrian glass followed the same style and manufacture as the rest of the Roman world, and is hardly to be distinguished from it.

Fig. 3. Dark blue glass oenochoe.
From Greece,

Fig 4. Opaque blue and white glass alabastos or toilet vase. Phoenician.

on the handle, are well known. The sand of Phoenicia rivalled
if it did not excel that of Alexandria for the fabric of glass, but
at this later period the manufacture was the same as the rest
The Greeks undoubtedly knew glass, although it may be
of the Roman world, and is only to be locally distinguished.
doubted if they actually made it. They termed it hyalos or lithos
kute, and vases, earrings, and the coffins of the Ethiopians were
as depicting transparent glass cups, and the Alexandrian furnaces
said to be made of glass. The Greek painters also are described
supplied Greece with cups which imitated metallic vases in
shape. The kings of Persia used glass cups, probably from
Egypt, and, under the Ptolemies, dishes and plates of consider-
able size were made, as well as glass vases gilded, which ap-
peared at the festival of Philadelphus.

With the increase of luxury the use of glass became more Tiberius, pretended to have invented an elastic glass which Vases were much in request common under the Empire, and a charlatan, at the time of he exhibited to that emperor.

The use of transparent glass appears in Assyria in the reign of Sargon, B.C. 719, in a transparent sea-green thick as articles of vertu, and Nero gave for two small specimens alabastos-shaped vase, on which is engraved in outline a lion £24 8s. 6d., a great price. Many of the finer glass vases of and the name and titles of that monarch (Fig. 2). It was found the period were ornamented with white subjects in relief upon a in the N.W. Palace of Nimrud, and is the oldest-dated speci-coloured ground, originally cast in a mould, but finished like At Rome there was an extensive manufacture of men of transparent glass. Many other fragments and glass camei by engravers. Other glass vases imitated the celebrated vessels of small size, apparently for the toilet, and some myrrhine. bowls, were also discovered in Assyria, but as in shape and plain, coloured, and millefiori or mosaic glass for vases, boxes, fabric they are undistinguishable from ordinary Roman glass, hair-pins, pieces for inlaying mosaic pavements and walls, latrunthey are supposed to be of the Parthian and Sassanian period, culi or draughtsmen, astragali or knuckle-bones, dice, spoons, and to have been introduced by trade when Nineveh became a toys, medallions with heads of the Medusa, or busts of the ImRoman colony under the name of Claudiopolis. They differ perial family in relief for horse-trappings and phalera, and

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minute mosaics for rings or other ornaments. About the first century it came sparingly into use for windows. The bottles of perfumers or apothecaries were made of it, some stamped with the names of Firmus, Hilaris, and Hylas having been found all over Gaul and Italy. The glass was generally blown or moulded, and rarely cut, although a remarkable kind of cup, probably imitated from the boxwood ones in use, had letters quite undercut, and almost detached from the background. These, generally addresses or invitations to drink, were called diatreta, and are amongst the most beautiful and remarkable specimens of Roman glass, which sometimes it appears was of large size, as the Stamnion and Thericlian cup.

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Fig. 9. Gilt glass fragment with portrait of Christ.

dead. The Roman glass was both blown and moulded; it was green at first but whiter at a later period, and the term vitreus, or glassy, was applied to the waters of the spring and of the sea. The use of glass was extensive; windows have been found at Herculaneum, and it is supposed lenses or glass globes filled with water were used for magnifying. The Roman glass was principally made with sand and alkalis, but it appears from the analysis that lead was known, and the beautiful opaline and irridescent colours which often cover the surface of ancient glass are due to the decomposition of lead, and some of the most beautiful specimens of this kind rival, in the admiration bestowed and the prices given, the murrhine vases of the ancients. Contemporaneous with the decline of the Roman Empire, was the use and manufacture of glass in the andria has been already mentioned, but there was besides a dullish different provinces of the empire. The glass of Sidon and Alexwhite glass made at Carthage, and another in Parthia, a specimen of which, the cup of Chosroes, A.D. 531-579, is in the Louvre at Paris. Glass for the purpose of enamelling was also made in Britain, and the Anglo-Saxons who conquered the country after

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The

Eirenæus, Neikon, and Ennion, the former in Greek and Latin, have been found on the handles of cups. The Emperor Hadrian not only recorded the activity of the Alexandrian glass shops, but sent specimens to his friend Servilianus, then consul. But at the time of Gallienus, A.D. 218, glass had become common, and that emperor spurned its use. The Egyptian usurper, Firmus, A.D. 273, lined with it the walls of his residence. At a later period, the extensive use of pastes, or imitation of coloured stones, led to great frauds amongst the jewellers, to one of which the Empress Salonina, the wife of Gallienus, became a victim. The Emperor Tacitus, A.D. 275, particularly delighted in glass, Under Aurelian, A.D. 275, a tax was laid upon it. Roman glass was made of a fine sand, which was found at the mouth of the river Vulturnus, between Cuma and the Lucrine Bay, and twice fused before being converted into glass. A regular company of glass manufacturers flourished during the Empire at the Porta Capena. It has been supposed that the Romans knew the use of manganese in the production of glass. About A.D. 310 the diatreta were much in vogue, and many flat, shallow patterns on which were cut or engraved athletic and other subjects in intaglio appeared. These were succeeded by cups having religious and other subjects painted in gold at the bottom, and backed for protection by another layer of glass. Some of these subjects are domestic, but most are religious, such as Christ, His miracles, the Raising of Lazarus, the apostles Peter and Paul, the prophet Jonah, historical and other subjects. They were chiefly pocula or cups deposited with the Christian dead in

Fig. 10. Anglo-Saxon green glass cup with lobes.

the withdrawal of the Roman legions used a coarse kind of cup of thin green glass, occasionally studded with lobes in imitation of the diatreta glass of the Romans-where made is not known.

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As early as the beginning of the third century, A.D. 217, the Pope Zephyrinus had enjoined the use of glass chalices; and glass tessellæ are found in the mosaics of Ravenna as late as the sixth century. Both green glass and the hyalenai diachrysai seem to have continued till that period in Italy. The art in the East was transferred to Constantinople, and one of the gates of the city was named after it. Theophilus, a later writer, mentions this glass, which he calls Greek. The application on white, red, and green enamel glass was also made at Thessalonica; and just prior to and after the rise of Mohammed circular coins or counters, inscribed with the names of Fatimite caliphs, and circulating from A.D. 952 to A.D. 1094, came into use. Contemporaneous, or, perhaps, before them, were pendants of circular shape suspended to necklaces stamped with heads of deities, animals, and Byzantine monograms. In the East the art of glassmaking continued at Alexandria till the eleventh century A.D.; and in 1163 glass was made on the site of Tyre by Jews who came from Antioch. Arabic glass vessels of large size, decorated with inscriptions in large characters, animals, birds, and monsters, were in use in the thirteenth century, and some of the most beautiful specimens of the art are the lamps which were suspended in the mosques of Cairo, inscribed with the names of

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in 1292 the furnaces were removed to Murano, where they have since remained. In A.D. 1335 their painted glass windows are mentioned, and their glass was publicly sold on ship-board in the port of London in 1399. Half a century later, A.D. 1443, they manufactured crystalline or pure white, common, and ruby glass. About this time arose the firm of Ballerini, who introduced classic shapes and styles in A.D. 1474. A century later the celebrated lace glass, the vitro di trina, appeared a little after the improvement effected by A. Vidaore in the production of beads. Subsequently, in A.D. 1564, Roder made excellent mirrors, a branch of the manufacture for which Venice excelled. In the seventeenth century great improvement took place in all the varieties of the products, but the competition with the Germans induced G. Briati, one of the manufacturers, to imitate the Bohemian glass. This maker made also lace glass, and engraved glass by means of the diamond. In A.D. 1772 Miolli, another maker, made mirrors cheaper than the French; but after the fall of the Republic the glass art of Venice lost its pre-eminence, although it has always retained the lead in the manufacture of smaller objects, especially millefiori beads, which are abundantly exported and used in part of the African trade. Lately an attempt to revive the taste for ornamentation and objects of vertu has been made by Salviati, and some of the objects are undistinguishable from those of the earlier centuries. But for the ordinary uses of life, the glasses of Venice are surpassed by those of other nations. The process used by the Venetians was that known as cylindrical. The principal kinds of Venetian glass were the plain, the gilt, and enamelled, crackled of the sixteenth century, variegated, opaque, or schmelz of the seventeenth century, the millefiori or mosaic glass, the filagree or reticulated, the vitro di trina, and a light glass made with the ashes of the fern or kelp. Their shapes are floral and fantastic.

From Italy the fabric of glass seems to have passed into France in the fourteenth century, where it was encouraged, but does not appear to have flourished. In the sixteenth century the Dukes of Lorraine patronized the art in their duchy, and Henry II. established Theseo Hutio, an Italian glass-maker, at St. Germains-en-Laye. In A.D. 1663 glass was made at Paris and

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Fig. 11. Enamelled Arabic glass lamp with name of
Seit-Eddeen, Emir of Egypt. A.D. 1293-1341.

founders or donors, about A.D. 1347-1361, the earliest of which known bears the name of the Caliph Mohammed ben Kalaun, whose reign closed A.D. 1341. Glass was made at Damascus in the fourteenth century, but the art declined after the fall of the city to Timur Beg; and subsequent travellers in the East record only a bad kind of Persian glass made in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and glass manufactures at Smyrna. coarse kind of glass, chiefly for ornamental objects for the pilgrims, is made at the present day at Hebron, in Palestine.

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China has never excelled in the making of glass, and at the present day imports broken European glass, which it remelts for such purposes as it requires. These are chiefly small objects, such as snuff-bottles, lenses, and little figures, none of which are dated older than Kienlung, A.D. 1736-96. This glass is chiefly opaque; and some figures of apes in an opaque white glass of unknown age were found in coffins at Pihking.

In the West the art of making glass was apparently never lost. Vessels of this material continued in use in France and Italy, and small pieces were employed for mosaics and other purposes, such as windows. Glass windows were placed in the Abbey of Tegernsee as early as A.D. 999, and in A.D. 1240-50 in the convent of Assisi, while mosaic glass tesselle of A.D. 1300 are found in Italy. The political confusion and distress consequent upon the fall of the Roman Empire transferred the manufacture to Venice. Theophilus and Heraclius, writers of the twelfth century, mention in their day, three kinds of glass-Roman, Byzantine, and Jewish. But Venice about the same time became the emporium. Mosaics Nevers. Subsequently the French rivalled the Venetians in the in that city, as old as A.D. 882, have glass tesselle, possibly of production of mirrors, but at a higher price. It is sometimes a local fabric. But the trade had not attained any excellence difficult to distinguish between the earlier French glasses and till A.D. 1280, when the makers exhibited their ware. those of the furnaces of Murano. Flint glass was manufactured 1275 the export of the sand used for glass was prohibited, and at St. Cloud in 1784, but the establishment was subsequently

In A.D.

Fig. 12. Venetian Lace glass cup with cover.

Fig. 13. Enamelled German wiederkom or drinking-glass.

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