GRAFFITI (Ital. cf. Greek ypápew, to grave, write), a term used to denote the rude inscriptions and drawings frequently found on ancient walls, monuments, &c., more especially in the excavated ruins of Rome and Pompeii. The practice of scribbling in places of public resort seems to have been as common in former times as it is at present. Examples of it are found alike in the ruined temples and sepulchres of Egypt, upon the rocks of Mount Sinai, and in the tombs of the Prophets at Jerusalem; while, apart from actual remains, its prevalence in Greece and Italy is attested by numerous passages in classical authors. Among other instances, we read of lovers thus proclaiming their passion (v Toto Toixos, Arist. Ach. 144; èv Oúpa, Arist. Vesp. 96; Plant. Merc. A. II. Sc. 3.74), of scandal being so disseminated (Cic. Verr. III. 33), and of the walls and pillars of shrines being covered with the inscriptions of votaries ("multa omnibus columnis, omnibus parietibus inscripta," Plin. Ep. VIII. 8.)

The graffiti of Pompeii, which are the most celebrated, represent in general the mere humours of an idle populace, such as often deface the street walls of modern towns, and are therefore more valuable from the curious insight they afford into the manners of the time than as possessing any literary or artistic merit in themselves. Some of them are traced with red chalk

GRAFFITI.

1178 panied with the number of their victories; or are the mere scribblings of schoolboys practising their lessons, such as alphabets, lists of nouns and verbs, and early essays in caligraphy. The drawings, which are chiefly grotesque representations of gladiators, are, with few exceptions, extremely rude and inartistic; but they possess sufficient spirit and fidelity to illustrate many of the obscurer details of the combats of the arena. Of the two examples given below, the first represents a pair of gladiators, one seemingly a Mirmillo, the other a Samnite; the latter has dropped his shield, and by holding up his hand in the

Fig. 1.

or charcoal, but the great majority are scratched in the stone or plaster, and the instrument employed was doubtless the sharp pointed stilus or graphium of iron or bone used for writing, and commonly carried in the girdle or in the front fold of the toga. The Latin language is that generally found, but the Greek also occurs, and there are even some examples of Oscan, which are peculiarly interesting as an evidence that that ancient language of Campania had not become entirely obsolete even so late as the middle of the first century A.D. In whatever language, the letters are, as might be expected, rude, ill-formed, and variable; in character they are chiefly quadrate, though some inscriptions, perhaps later in date, are written in what is almost a cursive hand. Some peculiarities of form and usage may be noticed, such as the frequent use of two upright strokes [||] in place of the Latin E, the interchange of Latin, Greek, and Oscan characters, and a tendency in words to drop a final consonant. The two specimens here engraved may serve to show the general style of writing employed in the Pompeian graffiti. They represent the names Menedeme and Pompei, and both, it will be observed, exhibit the peculiar form of E mentioned above. The subjects of these graffiti are of the most varied kind. Some are

POMPINI

Fig. 2.

number of his victories, between a palm-branch and a chaplet, which were the usual prizes ("plurimarum palmarum gladiator," Cic. pro Rosc., 6).

Graffiti are found at Rome in the tombs on the Via Latina, and in the substructures of the Palace of the Cæsars and of the Golden House of Nero; but the greatest number occur in the Catacombs of Sant' Agnese and San Callisto. In these ancient cemeteries of the early Christians, they are, as de Rossi says, "the faithful echo of history and infallible guides through the labyrinth of subterranean galleries." The same writer divides them into three classes, viz., mere names of visitors, good wishes, quotations from well-known poets, principally Ovid and Pro- prayers, &c., on behalf of friends and relatives, such as, vivas, or pertius (e. g., Ovid, A. A. I. 475-476; Amor. I. viii. 77-78; Prop. vivas in Deo Cristo, and thirdly, invocations of the martyrs. El. iv. 5, 47-48), or lines of doggrel, generally of an amatory or One Roman graffito, in an underground chamber in the Palace of humourous character; some are sententious and didactic, as the Caesars on the Palatine, deserves particular mention as appaminimum malum fit contemnendo maximum: others are expres-rently drawn by a Pagan hand in mockery of the Crucifixion. sions of affection or aversion, as Auge amat Arabienum; Vale, It is a rude sketch representing a man in an attitude of adoramea Sava, fac me ames; and Asellia, tabescas; or cast satirical tion before a cross, on which is suspended a human figure having reflections, more or less ill-natured, as Epaphra, glaber es! Oppi however the head of an ass; while underneath is the legend embolari, fur furuncule; Lucilia ex corpore lucrum faciebat; or ΑΛΕΞΑΜΕΝΟΣ ΣΕΒΕΤΕ [σέβεται] ΘΕΟΝ. are even more grossly libellous and obscene. A great number,

again, are simply names, such as lists of gladiators, often accom- That it is the Christian religion which is here blasphemously

aries, of monastic institutions were under the care of the granarer, grangiarius, or granatarius, and several remain to this day, as at Peterborough, Abbotsbury, Fountains, and St. Mary's York. That at Abbotsbury is very remarkable for its architecture, which is as carefully designed and executed as though it had been a cathedral, and, in the greatness of its dimensions, it may fitly be contrasted with such buildings. Its length is 276 feet, inside width 31 feet, thickness of walls, 3ft. 3 inches; outside it is divided into bays, of about 12 feet each, by buttresses. An engraving of it will be found in the 'Journal of the British Archæological Association,' 1872, p. 108.

The word grangia was also used for the threshing floor of a barn, but in its derived and more extended meaning was employed for a farm and all the buildings belonging to it, when the property of any monastery. Hence we find grangia and grangiola used for a country estate or farm, and also as a cell [CELL, E. C. S. col. 472] to some larger religious house. Granges were especially objects of acquisition among the Cistercians, who made them abbatial residences, and annexed parks to them. The Harleian MS. 607, mentions the effects in the grange at Cuddesdon, which included corn, cattle, farm implements, benches, &c., and " a carte, the wheles bound with iron." These outlying estates were brought to a high state of cultivation by the monks, who were enabled to provide the parent monastery with stores at the mere cost of production, and the Cistercians reared sheep and cattle upon theirs to such a degree of perfection that their corn and wool were noted throughout England for their superior quality. Some of these farms were administered by a responsible member of the fraternity, who either paid a certain sum annually to the abbot, or accounted at appointed periods for all the produce. This manager was called the grangiarius, and a provost was not allowed to hold the office. Some large landowners also employed grangers or bailiffs to manage their possessions in a similar manner. Hence we find the expressions "grangearius comitis," in the Regestum Probus. Blomefield, in his detailed account of the Cathedral Priory of Norwich, makes a distinction between the Grangearii who were the overseers of distant farms, and the Granarii, or keepers of the garners, who took in and delivered out the corn at the granaries, which were long buildings in the lower close to the east of the deanery. Granicarius, or granitarius, was another form of this word. The office of Granetarius, and Granatarius occurs in the Domesday Survey, and was evidently connected with this. (Ducange, Fosbrooke, Dugdale, &c.).

processes.

is to be "fine-axed," the stone is worked all over with a series of fine chisels fastened together in a group or mass. If it is to be polished, it is rubbed first with an iron tool wetted_with_sand and water, then with emery and water, then with flannel and putty powder. If the surfaces are plain and the blocks large, the polishing tools are moved by machinery; if otherwise, mostly by hand. For flat surfaces, the granite travels to and fro under an iron disc revolving on a vertical axis. For polishing columns, the column is made to rotate on a horizontal axis; a heavy segment of iron rests on the upper portion of the curved surface, and the friction against this iron, fed as it is with sand, emery, putty powder, &c., first smooths and then polishes the stone. For some large flat surfaces, the iron rubber moves to and fro over the block or slab kept stationary, instead of the latter being made to move also.

The Albert Memorial, above adverted to, contains a greater variety of highly-wrought granite than any other structure in England. The steps surrounding the base and the pedestals at their angles, are of grey granite from Castle Wellan, County Down; the additional steps on the southern side, Penrhyn granite; the blocks terminating these lower steps, Penrhyn capped with pink Mull granite. The total length of granite steps is 11,879 feet, or 24 miles. The stones forming the plinths and bases of the columns weigh from 10 to 15 tons each; and each base, formed of one block of granite, occupied twelve men for 16 days to work. The length of polished granite column is 791 feet. The columns on the four angles of the podium, with the bases and cornices belonging to them, comprise among the stones used red Mull, pink Mull, Castle Wellan, and Cornish granite. The base and cornice of the pedestal for the Prince's statue are of Correnie granite, an exquisite variety, nowhere quarried, but wrought out of large boulders found on a mountain side on the estate of Captain Gordon, at Cluny. Up to the level of the upper platform the granite is unpolished, though wrought with the utmost nicety; above that level, it is polished. The blocks in the Albert Memorial, the Holborn Viaduct, and the new Blackfriars Bridge, are, however, small compared with the columns of the Isaac Church, at St. Petersburg, each of which, 50 feet in height by 10 feet diameter at the base, consists of one single block of polished red granite; while the monolithic granite shaft of the column of Alexander, in the same city, is no less than 80 feet high.

GRANT, a species of demon about whom Gervase of Tilbury, an English historian of the early 13th century, in his work, De Otiis Imperialibus, has given us some interesting details. GRANITE WORKING. The largely-increased use of granite He says in England there is a race of demons which is called in engineering and in decorative architecture has led to the grant, as large as a colt of one year old, standing erect on its opening of new quarries, and the adoption of improved working hind legs, and with glittering eyes. This kind of demon very All the Granite companies in the kingdom had their frequently appears in the roads in the full heat of the day, or resources taxed to supply blocks large and numerous enough for about sunset, and whenever it makes its appearance it portends the Thames Embankment; the granite is of the usual grey a conflagration in the city or village it visits. And when on kind employed in engineering, well shaped and prepared, but the following day or night the calamity is about to take place, unpolished. The Aberdeen quarries yield blue-grey from Cairne-it rushes about and makes all the dogs bark, and then engal, black-grey from the Alford Valley, and red Aberdeen from courages them in the vain hopes of catching it. This illusion Peterhead. The beautiful red and pink granites of the Isle of makes all who have charge of fires very cautious, and thus, Mull and neighbouring islands on the western coast are those to although the busy demon terrifies those who see it, yet it does which architects now attach most importance for decorative effect. goodly warning at its approach to those who would otherwise The pink of Mull, and the lively red of Iona, are especially in have been ignorant of what was going to take place. favour. The Scottish Granite Company, working those quarries, have lately established polishing works near Glasgow; but the Mull granite pillars employed for the Holborn Viaduct-each block weighing 13 tons, and measuring 9 feet by 5-were conveyed from Mull through the Caledonian Canal to Aberdeen to be polished, and thence shipped to London. The fine columns of Mull granite at the new Blackfriars Bridge were polished at Glasgow; they are eight in number, weighing 40 tons each, and were made in sections simply from the difficulty of transporting such ponderous masses to London. Some of the blocks employed by Sir G. G. Scott in the Albert Memorial, Hyde Park, are still more massive; the lifting of these blocks from the quarries, and their shipment and land transport, were very costly, irrespective of the expense of working. The Mull granite now commands so high a price, that it is not much bought for engineering purposes, monumental and decorative works being those mostly selected for its application.

If the strata are well placed, blocks of fine granite can be obtained without the use of gunpowder, but in most cases blasting is necessary. The blocks, when obtained, are shaped by "plug and feather"; small holes are made in a row, two thin pieces of iron are put into each, and a steel plug between hem; heavy blows on the plugs split the stone. If the granite

GRANT'H, THE (pronounced Grunt, Sanskrit grantha, a book, the name of the sacred book of the Sikhs. It is written in Hindi, and forms a 4to volume of about 1200 pages. It merits attention as being the most recent religious writing which claims to be the guide in matters of faith and practice of a large section of our fellow subjects in India. In the opinion, too, of those most competent to judge, it is the book under the inspiration of which the various races of India, of all creeds and parties, are most likely to rally together for a common purpose.

of pro

At various times the stagnant pool of Indian belief has been disturbed by the passing wind of new and unheard-of teaching; some of the ripples have passed away, but others continue to agitate the sluggish mass. Of the latter kind was the movement set on foot by the Brahmin Shunkur Acharj, in the eighth or ninth century of our era, who, amid other reforms, and by way test against the prevailing idolatry, proclaimed Siva as the truest type of God to the exclusion of others. [SIVA, E. C. vii. 590.] This doctrine was promulgated by his disciple and nephew Râmânuja, who established a fraternity of Brahmins named after himself, who reverenced in the person of Vishnu, the supreme being, and taught that all things were to be abandoned for the sake of the gooroo, or religious teacher. [VISHNU, E. C. viii. 650.] At the close of the fourteenth century, a disciple of

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GRANT'H, THE.

GRAPHIC STATICS.

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is, that "God is to be worshipped in spirit and in truth," with little reference to particular forms, and that "salvation is unattainable without grace, faith, and good works." The 'Adee Grant'h,' or First Book of Nânuk, the First Gooroo, contains many allusions to the condition of society and religious feeling in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, but nothing historical or narrative. The Grant'h contains also the compositions of certain Bhugguts or holy men, sixteen in number, and the verses of certain Bhâts or rhapsodists, followers of Nânuk, and some of his successors. The Book of the Tenth King, i.e., Govind Sing, the tenth Gooroo, who gave the Sikhs a military organization, which enabled them to bring into the field armies of 100 to 200,000 men, and inspired them with the hope of one day being masters of the whole peninsula, forms the remaining portion of the sacred book of the Sikhs. The Sikhs believe that the spirit of Nânuk animates each successive Gooroo, and are filled with the enthusiasm inspired by religious ardour, which renders them, though numerically small, the most powerful confederation in India-a confederation which the British Government cannot afford to disregard. Some of the allied monotheistic sects, the Kabirpanthis and Dadupanthis, have a place of worship at Benares.

Râmânuja founded a more comprehensive sect, whose distin-ceeding teachers of the Sikh faith, the general purport of which guishing tenet was devotion to the heroic Rama. Ramanund of Benares, the founder of the new sect, starting with the doctrine of man's equality before God, admitted people of all castes and classes to the privilege of discipleship. About the same time, a learned enthusiast taught that intense mental abstraction would etherealize the body of the most degraded, and gradually unite his spirit, so purified, with the all-pervading Soul of the world. Ramanund made choice of Siva as the god who would bless this austere perseverance after holiness, of men of every caste. In the year 1450, the mysterious weaver, Kubeer, a disciple of Ramanund, denounced the worship of idols as impious, assailed the authority of the Sâstras [SANSKRIT LANGUAGE AND LIT., E. C. vi. 262] and the Koran, and inveighed against the use of a learned language. He appealed to the people in their own tongue, gained their support, founded a sect which still exists, and left behind him religious writings which have a firm hold upon the minds of the lower orders in the Upper Provinces. The reforms of Ramanund were, at the beginning of the sixteenth century, introduced into Bengal by a Brahmin named Cheitun, who converted some Mohammedans, and admitted men of all castes to his sect. Vullub Swamee also, a Brahmin of Telingana, gave an impulse to the new reformation. Thus we see the leaven of religious reform had been working in the minds of the Hindus for nearly six centuries, when Nanuk, the founder of the Sikh religion, came upon the scene, proclaiming to his countrymen that the lowest in the scale of fortune is, in the sight of God, equal to the highest, in race as in creed, in political rights as well as in religious hopes.

The Mohammedan conquest of India had sown the seeds of stern monotheism in the Northern Provinces, the pretensions of a learned caste to superior rights had been denounced, Ramanund and Gorukh had preached religious equality, and Cheitun had declared that faith levelled caste, while Kubeer had denounced the worship of images, and appealed (like Sakya Muni, the founder of Buddhism) to the people in the vulgar tongue.

These seekers after God, regarding the amelioration of man's social condition as a matter of inferior importance, aimed chiefly at his emancipation from the overwhelming power of the priesthood, and deliverance from the grossness of idolatry and polytheism. They founded sects which subsist to this day, but Nânuk laid the foundations of a powerful and warlike nation. He was born at Lahore, in the Punjab, in 1469, and in his early manhood familiarised his mind with the study of the popular creeds both of the Hindus and Mohammedans, assumed the garb of a wandering durweesh, and travelled extensively in search of knowledge. He had studied both the Koran and the Sâstras, and his heart sought a resting-place amid the conflicting creeds and practices of men. "All is error," he said. "I have read Korans and Purans, but God I can nowhere find." Returned at length from his long pilgrimage, he threw aside the religious garb, settled down in his native country, married, and brought up a family. The remainder of his long life he spent in "calling upon men to worship the One Invisible God, to live virtuously, and be tolerant of the failings of others." In the Grant'h he addresses men of all sects and castes, and says, "Remember that Lord of lords who has seen come and go numberless Mohammeds and Vishnus and Sivas ;" and the whole scope of his teaching is, that God is all in all, and that purity of heart is the first object worthy our attainment. While combining into his own the excellencies of preceding systems, and avoiding their grosser errors, Nânuk claimed no superiority over the others; he claims to be only the slave, the humble messenger of the Almighty, making use of truth as his sole instrument of warfare. Fight," says he to his disciples, "with no weapon save the word of God: a holy teacher hath no means save the purity of his doctrine." He appealed to no miracles himself, in support of his mission, and when called upon by a certain pretender to miracles to attest his authority by performing a miracle, he replied with a passage contained in the 'Adee Grant'h,' "Dwell thou in flame uninjured, remain unharmed amid eternal ice, make blocks of stone thy food, spurn the solid earth before thee with thy foot, weigh the heavens in a balance, and then ask thou that Nânuk perform wonders! " At the age of seventy, Nânuk died, calling upon his followers to live holy lives, and leaving behind him numerous Sikhs, i.e., disciples (from seek-hna to learn), who worship one God, abhor images, and reject caste. His system was perpetuated by the Gooroos, or religious teachers who succeeded him to the number of eight, one of whom, Arjoon, the fifth Gooroo, compiled the 'Adee Grant'h,' or First Book, which contains the writings attributed to Nânuk and the suc

ARTS AND SCI. DIV.-sup.

The Grant'h has not yet been rendered into English, but it is stated that the translation of it has been confided to the Rev. Dr. Trumpp, a missionary, by the Governor-General of India. (Further information will be found in Cunningham's History of the Sikhs.)

GRANT'S COOKING APPARATUS, a simple and convenient cooking arrangement devised by Captain Grant, and for some years in use at Aldershot. It consists of two brick conduits enclosing boilers, and united at a central chimney. Fires are lighted at their external openings, and the heated smoke passes round the boilers to the chimney. This is one of many ingenious arrangements for economising fuel in fixed and portable military kitchens. [COOKING APPARATUS, E. C. S. col. 620.]

GRANULATION (from granium, a grain). In chemistry, a process of minute mechanical division. In pharmacy, a process of subdivision of medicines by coating them with gun or sugar, and flavouring with tolu. In metallurgy, by pouring melted metal into water, as in making lead shot. In surgery, the minute fleshy bodies which cover the surface of wounds and ulcers during the healing process.

GRAPE-ČURE. A diet of grapes, under this title, is in vogue in Switzerland and many parts of the continent, as a mode of treating patients suffering from pulmonary consumption and other diseases of the chest.

GRAPHIC STATICS. Any numerical magnitude may be represented by a line whose length, to any assumed scale, contains as many units as the numerical magnitude. The common arithmetical operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division or evolution, can be accomplished by first representing the magnitudes by lines, and then performing certain purely geometrical constructions. It is, however, not in purely arithmetical questions that graphic methods are most useful. It is in certain mechanical problems that geometrical methods render the most powerful aid. Any force can be represented in magnitude, direction, and position, by straight lines. The direction of the force is given, by the angle which the straight line representing it makes with given co-ordinate axes. The length of the line gives the magnitude of the force, and an arrow marked on it may be used to show the direction in which the force acts, which determines its algebraic sign. The position of the line in the coordinate system completes the representation of the force. Problems concerning the equilibrium of forces can often be more easily solved, by first representing them by lines and by applying geometrical methods, than by analysis. There thus arises a branch of statics to which continental writers have given the name of graphic statics. For the purposes of the engineer such methods are peculiarly applicable, not only from their facility, but also, because, in their application, there is less risk of error than in complicated arithmetical operations. Very generally the object of calculations, by an engineer, is to determine a dimension, and in such calculations geometrical methods are peculiarly applicable. We propose to refer to some of these methods under MAXWELL'S DIAGRAM, E. C. S. Meantime we may refer to the following treatises in which graphic methods of dealing with statical problems have been adopted :Die Graphische Statik, von K. Culmann, 1866; Der Constructeur, von F. Reuleaux, 1869; Wrought Iron Bridges and Roofs, by W. C. Unwin; La Poussée des Terres, par J. Curie;

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