1197 his own. GUARANTIE. rantie be so, or be a direct engagement for the duty or debt as However refined, or even scholastic, such a question may seem to be, it has become, by reason of the Statute of Frauds, of practical importance to the parties in many instances. By that statute, the 29 Chas. II. c. 3, s. 4, it has been enacted, that no action shall be brought whereby to charge the defendant upon any special promise to answer for the debt, default, or miscarriage of another person, unless the agreement upon which such action shall be brought, or some memorandum or note thereof, shall be in writing, and signed by the party to be charged therewith, or by his duly authorised agent. It follows that, if it be a contract of guarantie, but is not reduced into writing, it cannot be enforced at law. The capricious selection of one or two species of contract by the Parliament of 1677, for the purpose of rendering them quite unenforceable by law unless they be in writing and signed, has cost individuals in this country an incalculable amount of money, and will continue from year to year, till the statute be repealed or modified, to entail upon others incalculable losses; and all this, because of some conceivable possibility that somebody, by trumping up some pretended contract of the sort, might, on some occasion or other, impose upon judge and jury, and so do an injustice. As if it were not still the fact that every hour of the day, in all the relations of life, in respect of nearly every description of duty and of contract, we are exposed to the suggestions and to the effects of falsehood, any protection from the necessity of writing for the purposes of evidence never being thought of. If the presumption on which the statute is founded were just, life, so unprotected as it really is, would be intolerable. The fact, however, is, that so little do people feel the want of such protection, the great majority of them never come to learn what are the two or three contracts for which it is reserved, and by reason of this ignorance, when they happen to enter upon one of these exceptional contracts, they conclude it orally, and consequently suffer loss. The judges, unfortunately, narrowed the effect of the statute by a very stringent interpretation of the word agreement, as involving the consideration for which the contract was made; and they held that a guarantie, although in writing, could not be enforced at law unless the consideration for which it was made could be ascertained from the writing. Men, therefore, being other than trained lawyers, often missed their object, clearly expressing their intention to guarantie, but without a word about the consideration for their engagement. At length some of these anomalies were about to be redressed, in the effort to assimilate the commercial laws of England and of Scotland. The commission that inquired into this subject included in their report a recommendation that the Statute of Frauds in relation to commercial contracts should be repealed. The bill for that purpose, however, was to that extent nullified in the House of Lords upon what was said to be the petition of the London merchants. It was, however, enacted (19 & 20 Vict. c. 97 and c. 60), that the consideration for which a guarantie is given need not appear by the writing required as evidence of the contract. Of course, as the contract of guarantie is incidental or accessory to the principal contract, the guarantor is not liable where the principal is not bound. This would apply to the case of an infant professing to bind himself not being competent in law. The same would hold true of a married woman. În neither case would a guarantie of such a contract be binding. Other cases may occur of persons competent in law professing to bind themselves by invalid contracts. Liability on a binding guarantie may cease on the happening of the event on which it was originally made to depend. As, for instance, a guarantie may be given to cover a single transaction, or to cover transactions not exceeding in amount a certain sum; there the limit of liability is determined by the transaction, or by the given amount of debt. On the other hand, a continuing guarantie sets no limit to the number of successive transactions, although it may be restrained to a fixed amount, beyond which the guarantor is not to be answerable. A guarantie may be determined by a change of circumstances introduced by the creditor, and not contemplated at the time of the contract. For instance, a collector or a clerk whose fidelity is guaranteed may have his responsibilities enhanced by the addition of the receipts from a new class of duties, or from a new branch of business. Or the firm to which the guarantie was given may no longer be constituted as it was, by reason, suppose, of the introduction of new partners. The guarantie ceases to be applicable to the change of circumstances. Again, if the creditor, by any act of his, release or discharge the principal debtor, the guarantor is no longer liable on his contract. If he, by a binding contract, give the principal debtor further time to meet his liabilities, without the previous consent of the guarantor, this latter is thereby discharged from his guarantie, by reason that his rights have been seriously interfered with by the creditor. The creditor may, however, without such consent of the guarantor, effectually covenant to give the principal debtor further time, reserving by the same covenant his right of suit against the guarantor notwithstanding, and the Courts, endeavouring to sustain such a contract, will construe it to be a covenant not to sue the principal, leaving, however, the surety to all his rights against the principal, and all his liabilities to the creditor. GUBERNACULUM (from Kvßeрváw, Lat. guberno, to command), in anatomy, the name given to the fibrous substance connecting the testes and scrotum in the fœtus, and supposed to act as a guide to the testes in their descent. 66 GUERRILLA (Spanish, a little war), the name given by the Spaniards to the irregular armies of peasants which have on various occasions sprung up to repel foreign invaders, or to carry on a partizan struggle. They have usually risen at the summons of some patriotic priest or local notability, and though wild and undisciplined, are hardy, impetuous, and daring, and hence have proved skilful and useful skirmishers and troublesome foes, as was especially the case in the invasion of Spain by the French under Napoleon I. But their want of discipline and unsteadiness lead them to neglect the most ordinary precautions, and render them liable to surprise, defeat, and panic. When the legitimate occasion of their embodiment is removed they too frequently continue to lead a freebooting life, which has not seldom degenerated into brigandage. The petty insurrectionary outbreaks and partizan wars that have been so fruitful of evil to Spain may often be traced home directly or indirectly to her guerrillas. GUEST-HOUSES, called also hostels, hospices, or hostries, were chambers, or sets of chambers, attached to monasteries, but outside the precincts, for the reception and entertainment of strangers. The great monasteries had several such, one for nobles, one for ecclesiastics, and one for poor travellers who were commonly received as inmates for three days. They were all under the direction of a monk of the establishment, who was called the "hospitallar," or hosteler," and the guests housed and entertained included all ranks from the highest to the lowest. Thus, even monarchs were not unfrequently received at these guest-houses, and splendid apartments were set aside for their use, as at Bristol, Beaulieu, and St. Albans. Sometimes also nobles, attended by large retinues, would seek their shelter; and these and the royal visitors often greatly impoverished the monasteries, more especially those which lay on or near the high roads, inasmuch as those were the most frequently visited. Guest-houses occupied various positions with regard to the monastery. The great guest-house usually stood on the west side of the cloister, as at Sherborne, where it still remains, or behind the refectory. Sometimes, as in Durham, it was placed in a base court at a distance from the cloister; and sometimes, as at Worcester, it was near the prior's lodging. At Furness, Malling, and elsewhere, it was near the entrance gate. In form it was usually oblong, and consisted of a large hall with sleepingrooms on each side, and having also separate servants' apartments and stables. The beautiful Guesten Hall which once was at Worcester has been destroyed; but that at Westminster, which is now the "Jerusalem Chamber," remains; near it there was a chapel where travellers returned thanks to God and made offerings for the poor. A perfect example of a guest-house chapel is extant at Peterborough, while that at Furness still remains, but in ruins. There was also an edifice or room before the guest-house, called the pro-aula, or salutatorium, where visitors were first received. Guests were received with the renia at the gate of the house, and after they had sprinkled themselves with holy water, and prayed for forgiveness of any sins they had committed on the way, in the choir, in presence of the convent, and again before the altar in the vestiary, they were conducted to the parlour, where the hosteler met them, and having said the "Benedicite," and given them the kiss of peace, he led them to the guest-house. If a guest arrived before dinner, notice was given to the refectioner, but if too late to dine with the convent, he remained in the parlour till the refectory was swept, and was then introduced. Persons of rank were received with great honours. Processions were formed, the great bells struck, and a great number of ceremonies were performed. Magnificent feasts and entertainments were also given, which frequently put the house to great expense. Thus, Peterborough spent several thousand pounds in entertaining Edward II. At Gloucester also, in 1378, great expenditure was incurred, for a parliament that was held in the abbey. Upon that occasion the king was entertained in the abbot's lodgings, the commons in the guest-house, the privy-counsel in the chief guest-chamber, the common council in the chapter-house, and the commission on the law of arms in the refectory, while the regular community, compelled to obtain refection and rest wherever they could, were fain to take refuge in the schoolhouse, and, at last, were actually driven out into the orchard. Visitors were allowed to remain two days and two nights, and were to take their departure after dinner on the third day. If by accident, such as illness or on account of any other unforeseen cause, a visitor could not then leave, the hosteler made known the circumstances of the case to the abbot, prior, or curarius, and permission was given to him to extend his stay according as his exigencies seemed to demand. According to the constitution, due hospitality was to be extended to all, and women who came honourably attended were to be received and entertained. Particular attention was to be paid to the parents of monks who came to visit their sons. In the nuns' guest-houses, which were enclosed in the nuns' court but excluded from the view of the community, none but the prioresses and obedientiaries entered the hostrey. Of the latter, two or three nuns presided over the hostrey, lay-sisters being appointed to serve and sleep there. when necessary, and no visitor was permitted to be bled, to bathe, or to exceed the stay of one night without the express permission of the prioress. (Fosbrooke's British Monachism; Lenoir's Architecture Monastique; Ducange's Glossary, under Hospitale.) GUILDS. [MUNICIPAL CORPORATIONS, E. C. vol. v. col. 830.] GUILLOCHE (French, guillochis), in Grecian architecture, a chain-like ornament, formed by the intertwisting or plaiting of two or more bands. An example of the guilloche moulding is given in the torus of the base of an Ionic column from the Erectheum, COLUMN, E. C. vol. iii. col. 53; see also GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, E. C. vol. iv. col. 532. GUINEA WORM [FILARIA MEDINENSIS, E. C. S. col. 988]. GUM-BOIL, an inflammation of the gums often passing on to suppuration, and sometimes requiring the use of the knife. GUM ELASTIC. One of the many names for india-rubber. [CAOUTCHOUC, E. C. vol. ii. col. 583; CAOUTCHOUC MANUFACTURES, ibid. col. 584.] GUMMIC ACID, CH12O10 (C12H12020), a crystalline acid prepared by oxidizing glucose in alkaline solution with cupric oxide. Its solution is lævogyrate and intensely sour. According to Claus, it is a bibasic acid, C,H2O, (2H0,CH,0), isomeric or identical with oxymalonic acid. (Reichardt, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cxxvii. 300; Felski, do. cxlix. 356; Claus, Zeits. Chem. [2] v. 152.) 5 GUM-RASH, RED GUM (Strophulus), an affection of the skin occurring in infants from the irritation of teething. GUM WOOD, or blue gum wood, is obtained from a timber tree growing in New South Wales. It comes over in large logs and planks, and is much valued in the arts; the colour is something like that of dark Spanish mahogany tinged with blue. A redder variety is called red gum wood. Both are used in building and turnery. GUN BARRELS, PROOF OF, in England. It appears that by Royal Charter, dated the 14th March, 1637, the Master Wardens and Society of the Mystery of Gunmakers of the City of London were incorporated and empowered to search for and view and prove and mark all manner of hand guns whatsoever, great and small daggs, and pistols, and every part thereof, whether made in London or the suburbs, or within ten miles thereof, or imported from foreign parts, or otherwise brought thither for sale. A scale, a stamp, and a proof house were subsequently established, and continued to be used in the proof of small arms from that time downwards. With the rise of the gun-making business in Birmingham arose the occasion for establishing a similar society, with powers for the purpose of proving gun barrels in Birmingham, and by the 55 Geo. 3, c. lix, such a society was established. In the year 1855, by the 18 & 19 Vict. c. cxlviii., the powers of both of these companies were revised and combined under the provisions of the statute of that year. Rules and regulations and by-laws with regard to the purposes of their existence may be made by each of the companies respectively. Each of the two companies is obliged to receive all barrels brought to the proof house of the company in the proper state for proof, and whether or not theretofore proved, and duly to prove the same thereat according to the scale in force, and to mark the same when proved as duly proved, and to redeliver them on payment of the lawful charges in respect thereof. No barrel is to be used in making of any small arm unless it have been duly proved and duly marked as proved. No small arm shall be sold, or exchanged, or exposed or kept for sale, or exported, unless the barrel or barrels thereof have been duly proved and duly marked as proved. Certain reductions of strength after provisional proof, or so that the mark of proof no longer corresponds with the strength, and certain defacements or removals of the mark of proof, cause the barrel to be regarded as unproved. The Act does not extend to the arms used or to be used by Her Majesty's forces in Europe or in India, nor to barrels adapted to the discharge of a ball of greater weight than one pound, or to barrels of a bore exceeding in every part thereof the diameter of one inch and three-quarters. Severe penalties are enacted in respect of offences committed against the Act, by counterfeiting, forging, or transferring marks on barrels, and for selling, exchanging, or exposing or keeping for sale, or exporting or importing, or attempting to export or import from or to England, or having in possession without lawful excuse any barrel with a counterfeited or forged stamp thereon; and for selling, exchanging, or exposing or keeping for sale, or exporting or attempting to export from England any small arm not proved and marked as duly proved, or fraudu lently erasing, &c., the marks of the proper stamp used to denote the due proof thereof. Two schedules are annexed to the Act, containing the rules and regulations and the scale for the proof required of small arms by the Act. GUN-BOAT [E. C. vol. iv. col. 560]. The offensive value of a gun-boat is to be measured by the magnitude and power of the gun she can carry; by the mobility her seaworthiness in all weathers can confer upon that gun, and upon the degree of steadiness of platform she can afford, to render the gunner's aim effective. Unless these are combined to a practically useful extent, the supposititious immunity from an enemy's projectiles based upon the diminutive mark which a gun-boat presents is a delusion. The recent progress of armour-plating, both afloat and ashore, and the corresponding advances in the magnitude and power rifled artillery, have required that the gun-boat must carry a gun of great weight and power; not less than 12 tons, and hereafter of probably twice that weight. From the diminutive size of gun-boats, and the method adopted of carrying the heavy gun upon the deck, it was soon found that the stability of those vessels was not sufficient for their safe navigation in a heavy sea; while their small size and absence of masts rendered the lowering of the gun and carriage into the hold, so as temporarily to increase the stability, or returning it on deck for use, by the usual methods, impracticable. To meet these conditions, an im proved gun-boat was designed in 1868 by Mr. G. Rendel, C.E., of Elswick works. One, "The Staunch," has been built on trial. This boat of iron is 79 feet long, 25 feet beam, and with a displacement of 150 tons has a draft of water of 6 feet. Her engines are high pressure of 130 indicated horse-power, driving twin-screws. By these a speed of about seven knots per hour is understood to have been made; and with one screw going ahead and the other astern, she could pivot round upon her own length in 2 minutes. The main peculiarity consists in the gun and gun-carriage (which has no traverse motion, that being provided for by the movement in azimuth of the boat herself, by the above use of her twin-screws and distinct pairs of engines) being placed upon a rectangular platform, resting at its corners upon four vertical screws, by the revolution of which in one direction the platform and gun can be raised to the level of the deck, or in the reverse are lowered down upon the bottom keelsons. The raising or lowering of the gun, as well as the running it forward on the platform-slides after discharge, and taking up the recoil, are performed by a donkey engine in the hold, acting for the latter purposes upon two capstan heads on deck and in the rear of the gun. A deck plan of this vessel is seen, with the gun raised to the deck in Fig. 1, and a transverse section, Fig. 2 (to thrice the scale), shows the gun and platform lowered. Into minuter de tails of construction we are unable to enter. So far as facility of manipulating the gun goes, this boat appears quite a success; it could be handled while she was rolling 11°, and when trimmed for sea, her stability was sensibly increased by the low position of the gun. Since the production of "The Staunch," gun-boats embracing the same general ideas have been built by the Admiralty of somewhat greater size, with much larger steam-power in proportion, with a view to increased speed, which has been brought up to nearly eight knots per hour in smooth water. It may be greatly doubted, however, whether very much that has been advanced in support of the offensive power of these or of any very small gun-boats, is not delusive. The now stock phrase, that "a ship of war is but a floating gun-carriage," is employed often in forgetfulness of the fact that unless the floating platform have sufficient steadiness, the gun itself is useless. Want of this sufficient steadiness is the defect inherent in all gun-boats, owing to their form and small size. Their tendency to pitching also is increased by the necessary disposition of the principal weights on board, viz., the engines, &c., abaft, and the heavy gun forward. In anything but perfectly smooth water, therefore, it is justly feared that either a large proportion of the projectiles from such a boat would miss to strike the hull of even a large ship, if at such a distance that the gun-boat derived immunity from her small size, or that she must approach her larger antagonist so closely as to be readily struck by her guns, worked from a platform comparatively steady. These defects, coupled with the fact that naval armour-plating has now in resistance surpassed the power of any 66 gun likely to be really manageable in a gun-boat, are likely to issue in the substitution for gun-boats of a class of Aviso, or despatch boat," designed prior to 1867 for the French Marine, viz., unarmoured ships of about 200 feet in length, built on lines much like those of the celebrated Alabama, fully but simply rigged for a large spread of sail, provided with great steam power, acting on twin or single screws, and thus possessing immense speed (eighteen knots an hour was proposed), and carrying four guns of the very largest class upon a single deck, capable of being trained and fired simultaneously, fore and aft or in broadside. As regards immunity from an enemy, it is better met by rapid motivity than by smallness of size; and as regards offensive powers, it is held by very competent men that such vessels would prove more formidable under almost all conceivable conditions than the most ponderous and heavily armed armour-clads afloat. GUN CARRIAGE. The guns for field artillery are mounted on carriages which are strong enough to bear the weight, concussion, and recoil, and yet capable of being drawn by horses over rough roads and rocky ground without overstraining or fracture. When the gun is being fired the carriage is a twowheeled vehicle, having a trail or block piece resting with one end on the ground; but when in motion, the carriage and its limber (the latter containing the ammunition for the gun) are hooked together to form a four-wheeled vehicle. In the British service these carriages are made in the Royal Carriage Department of Woolwich Arsenal, where large stores of well-seasoned timber (of which the carriages are chiefly made) are kept, and efficient wood-working machinery employed. The large guns for fortresses and coast-defences have often rather elaborate carriages, working on swivels and traversing platforms in order to command a wide horizontal sweep in pointing the gun. When the gun is fired from a casemate or enclosed space, the gunners are protected, but the sweep of the gun is limited; when it is fired over a parapet the sweep is great, but the gunners are much exposed to the fire of the enemy. Captain Moncrieff's gun-elevator is intended to combine the advantages of the two arrangements. while avoiding their disadvantages. [EMBRASURE, E. C. S. col. 871.] Naval or ship guns are, under ordinary circumstances, mounted on strong, heavy wooden carriages, which move to and from the ARTS AND SCI. DIV.-SUP. Fig. 1. Fig. 2. In this contrivance the gun is supported on a low frame or carriage, placed upon two parallel slides or rails inclining upwards or rearwards at a small angle. The small height of the carriage and gun above the slides, and the upward incline, rapidly overcome the recoil of the gun on firing. An elevating and traversing arrangement gives great facility to the training of the gun; while an ingeniously constructed break checks and secures the ponderous mass in any desired position. This break is indeed one of the best parts of the mechanism, for though small and light it exerts great power. So complete are the arrangements that a 25-ton 600 pounder can be loaded, run out, trained, and fired more quickly than a 32 pounder on the old system. When used for the ponderous broadside guns of the Minotaur, it was proved that the Scott carriage will allow of a smaller port-hole than would have been necessary with any other carriage; and that the port-hole may be 16 inches higher up out of the water, with the same range, and the same facilities for elevation and depression, thereby adding to the vessel's capability of fighting in a sea-way. In the trial of the Hotspur's 25-ton gun against the Glatton ironclad turret ship at Portland (July 5th, 1872), although the 12-inch thick iron of the turret was pierced by the 600-lb. shot, the Scott carriages of the guns within the turret bore the shaking well, and remained in working order. Some gunboats are now armed each with one 18-ton 10-inch 400 pounder, mounted on a Scott carriage so arranged that by means of four screws, one at each corner, the gun can by steam power be alternately raised to the deck to fire, and lowered into the hold to load. [GUN BOAT, E. C. S. col. 1200.] The following are the details of a Scott carriage for an 18-ton broadside gun : Slide. The slide is composed of the ordinary I girders, bent round, and joined together at the front end; the rear ends of the girders are joined together by suitable plates and angle irons; other plates are also fastened to the girders to stiffen them where necessary, and to carry portions of the working gear. The slide rollers are large in diameter and grooved to work over corresponding ribs cast on the racers; they are held in place under the slide by strong wrought-iron brackets bolted to the bottom flanges of the girders, and work on wrought iron pins of large diameter. A cliphook is hinged to the front end of the slide, 4 H 1203 GUN CARRIAGE. GUN COTTON. 1204 and works into a hooked racer bolted through the deck; this wheel. A pawl and small wheel are fitted to the right hand prevents the front end of the slide from jumping. spindle to prevent the gun "fetching away " in very rough weather. a, slide girder; b, ends of compressor bars on slide; c, slide roller; d, bottom plate of slide; e, roller-bracket; f, roller-pin; g, racer; h, pin to carry the compressor-bars. Carriage. Each side of the carriage is composed of an internal skeleton frame of cast iron, with wrought-iron plates riveted to it. The inner plates reach to near the bottom of the slide; they are joined together across the carriage by a bottom plate and diaphragm plates in the usual manner. The carriage rollers and the compressor cramps work in suitable recesses formed in the internal frames, and can be taken out without lifting the carriage. The trunnion brasses are fitted in semi-circular recesses bored through the internal frames and the side plates, so as to distribute the strain of recoil over the whole structure. The elevating spindle and the chain-gear spindle pass through brass bouches secured in the carriage side plates, but clear of the internal frames. a a, side plates of carriage; bb, portions of cast-iron internal frame; c, compressor-cramp; d, front diaphragm plate of carriage; e, Rear diaphragm plate of carriage; f, inner shoe of compressor-cramp: g, hand-wheel and screw; baulks secured to slide; m, horns on carriage for plates h; n, slide girder; sor-cramp; s, pawl to hand-wheel; t, joint-pin of compressor-cramp. prevented. There is ample room for a man to get beneath the slide; and all parts of the gear are readily accessible for repairs, cleaning, painting, &c., whenever necessary. o, bottom plate of slide; p running-in-and-out chain; r, joint-box of compres 3rd. Complete self-action of the compressor. Compressors. Each compressor consists of a wrought-iron bow-hhh, hanging plates on the carriage; ii, compressor-bars on slide; kk, wooden shaped cramp passing through and hinged to the side bracket of the carriage. The ends of this cramp hang down to about the centre of depth of the slide girder; the inner end is fitted with a shoe, and the outer end with a screw and hand wheel for setting up. A baulk of wood is secured on each side of the girder, and two compressor bars are held on suitable pins secured to the outside of the slide. Plates are hung on the carriage and work between these bars, and against the outer baulk on the girder; the inner shoe of the compressor cramp presses against the inner baulk of wood, and the jamming screw takes against the outer hanging plate on the carriage, so that by setting up the screw the whole of the plates, &c., are jambed together, with the slide girder between them. The bars and baulks on the slide and the plates on the carriage are tapered, so as to release the compressor when the carriage is lifted for running out; and when it is lowered again for firing, the compressor jams itself. The hand wheel is provided with notches round its periphery, and with a pawl to set it in any required amount of compression to suit the powder charges used. Running in and out gear.-The running in and out gear consists of a wheel and pinion in each side of the slide at rear, held in suitable brackets bolted to the slide, and working sprocket wheels with the ordinary pitched chains. The chains run over similar wheels at the front end of the slide, and these are provided with means for taking up the slack of chain arising from wear, &c. The chains are held to, or released from, the carriage, as required, by a bell-crank lever and eccentric that lift or lower a sliding block beneath the upper part of the chain. When the block is lifted it jams the chain against a plate bolted to the carriage, and provided with teeth that take between the chain pins. When the block is lowered, the chain is dragged down with it and will then be entirely free from the carriage. Ratchet wheels and pawls are fitted on the main spindle of the chain wheels to prevent the gun running in on the men, or out faster than is required. Training gear. The training gear consists of a bevel wheel at the rear end of the slide, keyed to one end of a strong spindle. A brass pinion is keyed to the other end of the spindle, and works into a cogged racer bolted through the deck. This racer may form part of the rear racer, or it may be cast and laid separately as necessary. The main spindle runs in bearings bolted on the slide, and is worked by two hand spindles and pinions, one on each side of the slide, gearing into the bevel 4th. Breeching ropes, and the attendant fittings on the ship's side, are not required, the carriage being held under the most perfect control by the compressors; it can with a little practice be brought back by recoil to the loading mark with the greatest nicety. Ample buffers are fitted both at front and rear in event of accident. 5th. That the slide having fixed rear rollers greatly facilitates the laying and sighting of the gun. 6th. That by means of the powerful and handy working gear, it is possible to handle and fire the gun in any weather in which it is possible to open the ports. the The most powerful ships now (1872) in the British navy, Thunderer and the Devastation, carry each four 35-ton 700 pounders, in two turrets containing two guns each, the guns having a range of nearly six miles. Captain Scott has devised additional contrivances in the carriages for these monster guns; newly arranged breaks or compressors, and hydraulic cranes for lifting the gun bodily, so that it may be fired from any one of three different elevations, and command an increased vertical range in firing. This GUN-COTTON, Pyroxylin, trinitrocellulose, C,H,N,011 = C,H,(NO2)30s (C12H2(NO) 3010) [E. C. vol. iv. col. 560]. compound is formed by the action of a mixture of concentrated nitric and sulphuric acids on cellulose, but there is always produced at the same time a small quantity of a yellow nitrocompound, soluble in alcohol, and derived from foreign substances present in the purified cotton. As pyroxylin is reconverted into cellulose by the action of an alcoholic solution of potassic sulphydrate, it must be regarded as analogous in constitution to ethylic nitrate. When quite pure and free from acid, it does not undergo spontaneous decomposition. (Abel, Phil Trans. 1866, 269; 1867, 181; Jour. Chem. Soc. xx. 310 and 505.) GUN COTTON. This substance has been so much improved, and its use so largely extended during the last ten years, that an extended notice of it becomes desirable. In 1847, Schönbein patented gun cotton. His process was to soak cotton wool thoroughly free from all extraneous matter in a mixture of nitric and sulphuric acids, the acids being mixed in the proportion of 3 to 1. The cotton was then well washed, and afterwards soaked in carbonate of potash to remove the acid and again washed. This gun cotton was much experimented with, and the results were unsatisfactory; serious and dangerous explosions took place, which were attributed to spontaneous combustion, and the manufacture was given up. The chemical effects produced by soaking cotton in nitric acid is shown in the formula C24H20020+5(No,Ho) = 8H0 + C24 + H17+ 017 5N05. So that gun cotton contains 25 proportions of oxygen shut up in the nitric acid ready to transform the carbon into carbonic oxide, or if explosion takes place, 2 C24+ H17+017 5N05 = 23CO + CO2 + 5N +17HO. The Austrian Government were not disheartened, and employed Baron Von Lencke to investigate the question of gun cotton more closely, and in 1863 that officer succeeded in making such improvements in the manufacture of gun cotton as furnished very promising results. Baron Von Lencke's process was to make the gun cotton in skeins of yarn, and these skeins were plaited or twisted in various ways according to the nature of the explosion required. In this form gun cotton was tried and largely experimented on in this country by a committee, of which Mr. Abel, chemist to the War Department, was a member. And to that distinguished chemist the country owes gun cotton in its present state. Mr. Abel, seeing that the great difficulty in making good gun cotton lay in completely impregnating every particle of cotton with the acid, and then washing that acid entirely out again, proposed to reduce the cotton entirely to pulp to carry out the various processes of the manufacture when wet, and to compress the gun cotton finally in a dense mass into such shapes as might be required. Gun cotton thus made is termed compressed gun cotton, and as such has acquired and is daily acquiring increased importance as an agent for blasting, and also for submarine mines [TORPEDO, E. C. S.] The only manufacture of gun cotton in England was until recently at Stowmarket in Suffolk, and the process there carried on was as follows:-Cotton, free from impurities, was selected and carefully dried in hot chambers, the presence of any moisture in the cotton tending to produce decomposition when treated with the acids. A trough divided into cells and filled with the mixed acids has 1 lb. of cotton placed in each cell. Each pound of cotton will take up nearly 11 lbs. of acid. The cotton is freely stirred, and in 10 minutes is taken out and squeezed in a screw press. It is then left to stand for 24 hours in jars placed in water. The cotton is now placed in a copper drum with finely perforated sides and bottoin, and made to revolve rapidly. By this means a considerable portion of the acid is got rid of. The cotton is then transferred to wooden vats and washed under a strong stream of water falling from a height; it is then put into another vat placed under cutting knives, which cut it into fine shreds, the washing process being still continued. It is then placed in the pulping machines, which are composed of vats with revolving paddles or wheels; the cotton is kept under this action for 48 hours, fresh water being continually supplied. It is then tested; if the tests are satisfactory, it is removed from the pulping machine. After this it is dried in a centrifugal machine, and contains about 28 per cent. of water. It is then placed in iron cylinders and compressed into the required shape under a pressure of 2 tons to the inch. The cotton is then further dried, packed in boxes, and ready for use. In this state the gun cotton, although very inflammable, is not explosive, that is to say, it will if fire is applied to it burst into flame and not explode; to make it explode it has to be placed in a strong case and fired. In this state gun cotton was and is extensively used for blasting and mining purposes. In the former case the envelope being provided by the rock, and in the latter by a strong iron box or coffer. In 1868, Mr. Brown, Mr. Abel's assistant, made a discovery that if gun cotton, instead of being fired by simple ignition, was fired by detonation it itself became a detonator, and that the full effect of the gun cotton could be obtained without the use of any case or envelope at all. The advantages which Abel's compressed gun cotton used with detonating fuzes possesses are: 1° If affected by wet, it can be dried and used again without its explosive qualities being impaired. 2° If ignited, except when in a strong case or by means of a detonating fuze, it will blaze and not explode. 3° Its strength as compared with gunpowder is from 2 to 5 times as great, according to the circumstances under which it is used. 4° It can be exploded in a very easy and safe way without the use of any envelope or case. Such being the case, there can be no doubt but that each day the importance and value of gun cotton as an explosive agent for mining purposes will be more and more recognised [MINING, MILITARY, E. C. S.]. The recent explosion (1871) of the works at Stowmarket has been traced by the coroner's inquest to the imperfect manufacture of certain portions of gun cotton, an imperfection which, from the circumstances under which it took place, appeared to point to some steps in the process we have described being either left out or acid subsequently added to the cotton. GUN LICENCES. By the Gun Licence Act, 1870, the 33 and 34 Vict., c. 57, it is enacted that a sum of ten shillings shall be levied on every licence to be taken out yearly by every person using or carrying a gun in the United Kingdom. Gun includes a firearm of any description, and an air gun or any other kind of gun from which any shot, bullet, or other missile can be discharged. The licence is to expire every year on the 31st day of March, and shall be registered. Every person using or carrying a gun elsewhere than in a dwelling-house, or the curtilage thereof, without having in force a licence duly granted to him under the Act, forfeits £10. EXEMPTIONS. The following exemptions are made, viz.: (1.) Any person in naval, military, or volunteer service of her Majesty when on duty or target practice. (2.) Any person having in force a licence or certificate to kill game granted to him. (3.) Any person carrying a gun belonging to any such person included in (2), by order and for the use of such person, provided such person on being asked by an officer of revenue, or constable, or landowner, or occupier on whose land the gun is used, shall give his true name and address, and also the true name and address of his employer. (4.) Any occupier of lands using or carrying a gun for the purpose only of scaring birds or of killing vermin on such lands, or any one doing so for such purpose by his authority, if he have a certificate to kill game, or a licence under this Act. (5.) Any gunsmith or his servant carrying a gun in the ordinary course of his trade, or testing its strength or quality in a place specially set apart for the purpose. (5.) Any person carrying a gun in the ordinary course of his trade as a common carrier. Where a gun is carried in parts by two or more persons, each and every such person is deemed to be carrying a gun. Authority is conferred on constables to make such inquiries, and to enter and remain upon such lands such a time as may be necessary for the purposes of the Act. a GUN MANUFACTURE. In GUN [E. C. vol. iv. col. 552], description is given of the chief processes in the making of muskets and small arms, smooth-bore and rifled; and under RIFLE [E. C. vol. vii. col. 86], the operations at Enfield are adverted to. Since those articles appeared, this establishment, the Royal Small Arms Factory, has risen to much importance. When the New York Industrial Exhibition was held in 1853, Mr. Whitworth and Mr. Anderson were sent over by the British Government to report upon the chief mechanical appliances used in America. The reporters found that rifles and pistols made in that country by machinery were superior in many ways to those made by hand at Birmingham, and much cheaper. It was resolved that a Government establishment should be formed, especially as rifles were about to be substituted for smooth-bores. Between 1854 and 1866 a sum of £200,000 was spent at Enfield on the buildings and machinery; and the factory became one of the most perfect in existence. Inventions and patents were purchased from various quarters to render every part of the operations as complete as possible. The stock, the lock, the barrel, and the various appendages, are all now made by machinery, which turns out the work with unerring accuracy. In an Enfield army rifle, several hundred distinct processes produce about sixty separate pieces of metal and wood; these are reduced to |