work without a licence, and no such firework shall be sold to any person apparently under sixteen years of age.

Any person who throws, casts, or fires any squib, serpent, rocket, or other firework in or into any thoroughfare or public place, or who aids in so doing, forfeits for every offence a sum not exceeding five pounds.

The authorities empowered to give licences under the Act are the justices of the peace for each county or other division at their general quarter sessions.

The owner or occupier of any mill, magazine, or place for the production or keeping of such explosive articles, is empowered by the Act to make rules and regulations for the persons employed on the works, and any such person contravening such regulations, or doing any act tending to cause explosion, is liable for every offence to a penalty of not more than five pounds.

For the purposes of mines, quarries, or collieries, three hundred pounds weight of powder may be kept at one time in a magazine or warehouse two hundred yards from the mine, &c., and from any inhabited house, or, within the same limits, any quantity not exceeding four thousand pounds, provided it be in a magazine well and substantially built of brick or stone.

As to the conveyance of gunpowder, not more than thirty barrels may be conveyed by land in any waggon, cart, or carriage, except in a van constructed for the purpose, and inclosed on every side with wood, and then not more than forty barrels, unless it be by railway train, and then not more than one hundred barrels in any one carriage; if by water within the United Kingdom, not more than five hundred barrels in any barge, boat, or other vessel, unless in vessels with gunpowder imported from, or to be exported to, any place beyond the sea, or going coastwise.

Gunpowder conveyed on land or water, not in vessels for importation or exportation, or going coastwise, is to be in barrels close joined and hooped, or in copper, zinc, or tin cases or canisters, inclosed in wooden boxes or barrels without any iron about such boxes or barrels, and so secured that no part of the gunpowder should be scattered in the passage; each barrel is to contain not more than one hundred pounds; every carriage by land is to have a complete covering of wood, painted cloth, tarpaulin, or wadmill tilts; every barge or boat is to have a close deck, and the gunpowder, as soon as put on board, is to be covered with raw hides or tarpaulins.

Any infringement of these regulations for the conveyance of gunpowder involves the seizure and forfeiture, for the use of the person seizing, of the gunpowder being conveyed, and the waggons or carts and beasts, or barges or vessels, employed therein other than such vessels as are laden with gunpowder for importation or exportation, or going coastwise.

Stale condemned or returned gunpowder arriving at a quay, wharf, or other place, must be entirely removed before other gunpowder is brought down to the said wharf, &c.

Any possession or use of charcoal, lucifer matches, or other combustible matter, or fire, or lighted candle, on board any vessel other than vessels laden with gunpowder for importation or exportation, or going coastwise, during the time of loading or unloading, or when the hatches are open, or any smoking on board such vessel, entails a fine of not more than five pounds for each offence.

Any want of due diligence in loading or unloading, or delay in the place of loading or unloading, on the part of any person having the care of a waggon, cart, carriage, barge, or vessel for the conveyance of gunpowder, entails a fine of not more than ten pounds for each offence.

Large powers are entrusted to the magistrates of the United Kingdom for the purpose of carrying out the provisions of the Act, and for preventing or stopping any infringement thereof. As to the river Thames, no master or commander of any ship or other vessel lying in the Thames and outward bound, is to receive on board more than twenty-five pounds of gunpowder (except for the Queen's service) before the arrival of such ship at, over, against, or below Blackwall; and the master or commander of every ship or vessel coming in the river Thames shall (except in the case of gunpowder for the service of the crown) put on shore in proper places, in conformity to the restrictions of this Act, all the gunpowder on board above twenty-five pounds either before the ship's arrival at Blackwall, or within twenty-four hours, if the weather permit, after coming to an anchor there, or to the place of unloading there, and shall not afterwards have on board more than twenty-five pounds of gunpowder, on pain of forfeiting the gunpowder in excess and two shillings for every pound thereof for every such offence.

By the 25 & 26 Vict. c. 98, gunpowder, as the object of search by the magistrates on land, and by the conservators of the river Thames, under the 23 & 24 Vict. c. 139, is to include loaded percussion caps, ammunition, fireworks, fulminating mercury, or any other preparation or composition of an explosive nature. GUSTATORY (from gusto, to taste), the name of the nerve supplied to the tongue by the inferior maxillary. GUTTA-PERCHA, C20H30 (C40H30). After exhausting gutta-percha with water and with hydrochloric acid, the residue dissolves almost completely in boiling ether. The substance which separates on cooling is purified by repeated solution in ether. Pure gutta-percha as thus prepared is quite white, and begins to melt at 150°; at a higher temperature it decomposes, yielding various hydrocarbons apparently identical with those obtained by the destructive distillation of caoutchouc. Certain kinds of gutta-percha contain a colourless crystalline substance called alban. This is insoluble in cold alcohol, but dissolves in that menstruum when boiling. (Payen, Compt. Rend. xxxv. 109; Baumhauer, Jour. Pr. Chem. lxxviii. 277.) GUTTA-PERCHA, DETERIORATION OF. It appears from the results of an extensive inquiry conducted by the late Prof. W. A. Miller, that gutta-percha is liable to deterioration under various conditions whereby it undergoes a chemical change, and that this change is a process of oxidation. Whatever retards or prevents this oxidation retards or prevents the decay of the gutta-percha. Thus complete submersion in water, especially sea-water, is a good preservative. On the other hand, alternate exposure to moisture and dryness, particularly in the presence of sun-light, renders the gutta-percha brittle, friable, and resinous in appearance and in chemical properties. A gradual absorption of oxygen takes place, and the gutta-percha increases slowly in weight, becoming proportionately soluble in alcohol and in dilute alkaline solutions. Caoutchouc is also liable to similar changes; but we must refer for details to the paper in the Journal of the Chemical Society,' vol. iii. p. 273.

GUTTA-PERCHA MANUFACTURE [E. C. vol. iv. col. 580]. This substance continues to be preferred to all others as an insulating material for submarine electric cables; whilst its uses in the manufacturing arts are gradually extending. In copying or reproduction, gutta-percha is much employed as a material for moulds or casts. In taking casts from metal work it is very convenient; for, when in a state resembling putty, it can easily be applied to all parts of the diversified surface; one piece can be squeezed into or upon another, rendering the joints of the mould few in number. In electrotyping, gutta-percha is much employed as a material for the intermediate inould, with this distinction, that an electro-copper surface is obtained direct from a gutta-percha mould; whereas, an electro-silver or electro-gold surface is obtained from a copper mould produced from a guttapercha or plaster rilievo. Gutta-percha, when in a finely prepared state, will take a mould, cast, or impression of the most minute details in a steel or copper-plate engraving. A remarkable use of the substance for this purpose is in connection with the Aciérage process for printing bank-notes and other engraved designs [ACIERAGE, E. C. S. col. 29; BANK NOTE MANUFACTURE, E. C. S. col. 232].

The imports of gutta-percha are found to be largest in the years when submarine cables are being made, showing that this is one of the chief applications of the substance. The years 1864, 1865, 1870, and 1871, were marked by large imports, varying from 25,966 cwt. to 35,636 cwt. per annum; the intermediate years varied from 15,134 to 23,535 cwt. The value or price on reaching this country has varied greatly, being nearly thrice as high in some years as in others, owing to the comparatively limited supply.

The future prospects of this trade are viewed with some anxiety. The Malays of the Singapore region, when they found there was a market in Europe for this juice, began recklessly to cut down the trees as a means of obtaining a large quantity at once, instead of periodically tapping them. As a consequence, the tree is now almost extinct at Singapore, and we are dependent mainly on Borneo and Sumatra, where a similar wasteful process has commenced.

Researches are being made into the possibility of obtaining other varieties of gum-sap to supplement the deficient supply of gutta-percha. In 1860, Dr. Van Holst brought before the notice of the Society of Arts the qualities of the bullet tree of South America, which grows luxuriantly in British Guiana. Abundant sap forms in the trunk about full moon, and the tree may be tapped frequently. Sir William Holmes, when Commissioner

for British Guiana at the London International Exhibition in 1862, brought a few specimens of this gum under the notice of manufacturers engaged in the gutta-percha and India rubber trades, with a view to having its qualities tested. In 1863, the Society of Arts offered a prize for the introduction of "any new substance or compound which may be employed as a substitute for gutta-percha or India rubber in arts and manufactures." This led Sir William Holmes to draw further attention to the bullet tree. In 1864, he sent to the Society a bottle of the sap as extracted from the tree by tapping, lumps or cakes in a dried state, and balls in a further stage of preparation. He claims for the prepared substance that it combines the ductility of gutta-percha with the elasticity of India rubber; and that it will bear a higher temperature than either of them. A tree yielding a similar gum abounds on the Malabar coast of India.

GUTTE (Latin, drops), in classic architecture, small truncated cones placed as ornaments under the mutules, and pendent from a fillet directly below the triglyphs, in the Doric order [GRECIAN ARCHITECTURE, E. C. vol. iv. col. 531]. They appear to have been so named from their resemblance to drops of water which had run down the flutings of the triglyphs and settled on the fillet beneath them. Examples in the Grecian Doric order will be found under COLUMN, E. C. vol. iii. col. 51, in Roman Doric in the same article, col. 47.

GYMNASTICS. This term is derived from the Greek yuuvós, naked, because the ancient Greeks practised their gymnastics almost in a state of nature. The origin of the art seems to have been coeval with that of the Greek nation itself, as gymnastics are mentioned in the earliest mythology; and, coupled with grammar and music, formed the sole education of a Grecian youth up to his sixteenth year, whilst between that and eighteen music and grammar were entirely discarded for gymnastics. That physically the creed was a sound one may be inferred from the well-proportioned forms and development of the ancient Greeks, which has rendered their sculptures the models for all succeeding ages. The laws of Solon contained enactments for the regulation of gymnasiums, whilst at Athens and all other large towns a magistrate styled a gymnasiarch was appointed, who was responsible for the proper enforcement of the laws, and had the entire management of all gymnasiums, whether public or private, under his sole control. The teachers were styled "gymnastæ," whilst the "alipta" anointed the gymnasts' bodies with oil, regulated their diet, and performed the duties of a surgeon. In the latter days of the Grecian nation, and in Rome, where a gymnasium was first introduced by the Emperor Nero, gymnasiums became a by-word and reproach, as they degenerated into mere haunts of vice and idle lounges where paid professional gymnasts performed for the gratification of the rich and dissolute. Vitruvius (v. 11.) gives the best description of a Roman gymnasium that is extant, and is generally thought to have taken that of Naples as his model. Amongst the Greek the exercises were divided into the pancratium and pentathlon. Both were included in the famous Olympic festivals and Isthmian games, but the former consisted of such brutal and violent exercises as boxing with heavilyloaded cesti; pastimes, it may be added, which were practised by professionals alone. The pentathlon, on the other hand, was practised by amateurs, and included the usual five events, viz., leaping, foot-racing, disc-throwing, spear-hurling, and wrestling. Great stress was laid by the ancients on the relation of gymnastics to medicine, and their gymnasia were dedicated to Apollo,

the god of physics and surgery. Plato refers to Herodicus as the inventor of what we might term "medical gymnastics," and states that he often astonished his patients by prescribing a walk from Athens to Megara and back, a distance of some five-andtwenty miles. Taken in a comprehensive classical sense, gymnastics were divided into the agonistic and athletic arts, the former being pursued by those who merely wished to improve their health and strength, or, in fact, by amateurs, whilst athletes were the professionals who made their living by the art, and contended in the public games.

If we except street mountebanks and the performers of hazardous tight-rope feats at music-halls and theatres, we have no professional gymnasts in modern times, who can in any way be compared to the practisers of the pancratium in ancient days. During the last ten years, however, a wonderful taste has sprung up amongst amateurs for following the exercises of the pentathlon, and no university or public school of note or military garrison in the United Kingdom is now without a wellappointed gymnasium attached to it. In most of our large centres of commerce, too, gymnastic societies have been formed to relieve the over-taxed brains of clerks and the like, whilst in the metropolis the German Gymnastic Society probably does more good than all other similar clubs put together, inasmuch as it encourages moderate proficiency in all kinds of exercises, instead of extraordinary superiority in a few only.

Nearly every writer on and professor of gymnastics has some time or another laid down his own system of classifying the various exercises in a manner totally different to everybody else's. To enumerate them all, much less to attempt to give directions how to practise them, would far exceed the limits of this article. A tolerably simple classification, and the one most generally accepted, is as follows, viz. :-(A.) Exercises wherein the gymnast moves his own body. (B.) Exercises wherein he moves an inert extraneous body. (C.) Antagonistic exercises, wherein he contends against a fellow human being. In the first-named we may enumerate lying, sitting, standing, walking, running, swimming, &c.; as well as exercises on various apparatus in the gymnasium. In the second division dumb-bells, Indian clubs, and the like are brought into requisition; rowing also comes under this heading. Lastly, the antagonistic exercises include such contests as boxing, wrestling, fencing, &c. The subdivisions of the above heads are very numerous. More numerous still are the various machines used in modern gymnasiums for exercising with, and to enumerate them would far exceed our limits.

GYNÆCEUM or GYNECONITIS (Greek yuvaikúv, yuvaikwvitis) in a Greek house, the part containing the sleeping apartments of the women. The part appropriated to the men was termed Andronitis (årdpwvîtis.) [HOUSE, E. C. vol. iv. col. 747].

GYNANTHROPOS, a name formerly given to that imperfect union of male and female, otherwise known as hermaphrodite. [ANDROGYNUS, E. C. S. col. 128].

GYROMANCY (Greek yupós, a circle, and uavreía, divination), divination by means of a circle. This mode of divination was performed by the enquirer standing within a circle on which were inscribed the letters of the alphabet. After reciting a preliminary prayer, he began to walk round the circle repeating a prescribed formula, and the letters opposite which he stopped being successively noted were supposed, when joined together, to afford the divine response [DIVINATION, E. C. S. col. 775].

HEMA (from aiua, blood), the circulating fluid of animals. The word is largely used in compound terms in medicine, surgery, and the allied sciences. Also in mineralogy and natural history, as applied to objects that have a bright red colour.

HÆMALOPIA, a term formerly applied to an illusion of the sense of sight in which all things had a red colour; but now to an effusion of blood into the globe of the eye, and to the blood-shot eye.

HÆMATEIN [HÆMATOXYLIN, E. C. S.]
HÆMATIN, Hæmatosin, hematosin, Ces Hro Ng Fe, O10

70 8

1213

70

4

HÆMATITE, or HEMATITE.

68

(C138H70NgFe1020) [E. C. vol. iv. col. 654]. This substance was formerly regarded as the red colouring matter of blood; recent investigations, however, have shown that it does not exist ready formed, but is produced, together with globulin, by the oxidation of hæmatoglobulin in the presence of acids or alkalis. It may be obtained pure by decomposing its hydrochloride with ammonia. Hæmatin_hydrochloride or homin, Ces H72 N, Fe, O10 Cl2 (C136H9N Fe ̧0202HC), is obtained in regular rhombic or sixsided plates on treating hæmatoglobulin with sodic chloride and glacial acetic acid. The crystals, which are dark blue by reflected, and dirty brown by transmitted light, are insoluble in water, alcohol, and ether, but soluble in acids and in alkalis. By the action of sulphuric acid on hæmatin the iron is removed, hæmatoporphyrin and hæmatolin being ultimately produced. [HEMATOGLOBULIN, E. C. S.] (Hoppe Seyler, Jahresber. 1865, 667; and 1867, 805; Med. Chem. Untersuch. 1871, 523; Gwosden, Wien. Akad. Ber. liii. [2], 683; Wittich, Jour. pr. Chem. lxi. 11.) HEMATITE, or HEMATITE [IRON, E. C., Nat. Hist. Div. vol. iii. col. 277], is becoming more and more extensively used as an ore in the iron manufacture. The remarkable richness of hæmatite in peroxide of iron (86 to 95 per cwt.) and consequently in pure iron (60 to 66 per cent.) renders it very valuable; especially as the proportion of sulphur, phosphorus, and other injurious elements is extremely small. The Cleator, Egremont, Whitehaven, and Ulverstone district is the chief storehouse for hæmatite in Great Britain. The ore has for a long time been smelted with charcoal at Ulverstone, to produce iron of superior quality; but it has been much more extensively sold to other iron-making districts, for mixing in the blast furnace with ores less rich in metal. The produce rose from 225,000 tons in 1854 to 1,047,819 tons in 1869, and has since still farther increased. One mine alone now yields more than the whole district yielded in 1854. The development of this trade has led to the creation of a new town, Barrow-in-Furness, and to the construction of docks almost rivalling those of Birkenhead in extent. There is a two-fold industry here, the export and import of different kinds of the ore at the docks; and the manufacture of Bessemer hæmatite iron and steel, the ore being well suited for the Bessemer process.

HEMATOCRYSTALLIN, that constituent of the blood of animals which assumes the crystalline form under certain chemical treatment. [HEMATOGLOBULIN, E. C. S.]

HEMATODES, the name of a soft cancerous growth (Fungus hæmatodes), characterised by the quantity of blood it contains, and its great tendency to pour out blood spontaneously or on slight pressure.

14

HAGIOGRAPHA, HAGIOGRAPHER, &c. 1214 Hematin. The hæmatoxylin, prepared by the process already described [HEMATIN, E. C. vol. iv. col. 653], if re-crystallised from water containing in solution a little ammonic sulphite or sulphurous anhydride, forms colourless crystals of the formula C6H110+3H2O or CHO+H2O. The former are transparent, very brilliant crystals belonging to the dimetric system, whilst the latter, which form hemihedral trimetric combinations, are generally of considerable size. Hæmatoxylin is sparingly soluble in cold water, easily in alcohol and ether, the latter abstracting it from an aqueous solution when agitated with it. When fused with potassic hydrate it yields pyrogallic acid. In presence of ammonia it is rapidly oxidised, forming hæmatein C1H12O6 (C32H12012). This may be obtained in the crystalline state by adding a few drops of sulphuric acid to an ethereal solution of hæmatoxylin, and allowing it to stand; the solution becomes dark coloured, and ultimately deposits brownish red crystals, having the composition CH120+3H2O. These are only slightly soluble in cold water, but more so in hot water, forming a reddish-brown solution, from which the hæmateïn cannot be recovered in the crystalline state by evaporation. It is re-converted into hæmatoxylin by the action of reducing agents. (Erdmann, Jour. pr. Chem. xxv. 195, and lxxv. 218; Hesse, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cix. 332; Reun, Deut. Chem. Ger. Ber. iv. 329.)

HÆMORRHEA PETECHIALIS, a synonym of purpura, or the scurvy.

HÆMORRHOUS, the name given by the ancients to a poisonous serpent, and transferred to those swollen veins of the human body which, when opened, discharge blood freely. HAFTING; HANDLES. The making of handles is a large branch of trade in Sheffield, and in the hardware district of South Staffordshire, where the fabrication of cutlery and edge tools is conducted. Iron, brass, and precious metals; motherof-pearl, tortoise shell, ivory, bone, horn, hoof; ebony, lignum vitæ, softer woods, and vulcanised india rubber, are among the principal materials brought into requisition in the making of handles by the various processes of sawing, planing, turning, carving, stamping, forging, casting, inlaying, &c. The modes of working are noticed under most of these headings in the Cyclopædia, and under CUTLERY, E. C. vol. iii. col. 363. The larger edge tools made in the Wolverhampton district employ several thousand men in shaping the handles alone. Ash is much used for this purpose. Planks from one to two inches in thickness are sawn roughly into shape by circular saws, and a turninglathe then gives smoothness to the surface of round handles. Crutch handles are made in two pieces, one for the shaft and one for the crutch. Eye handles are cut with a broad part at the top, in which a hole is bored by a revolving tool, and the eye cut out by means of a small steam-worked saw. handles for spades, &c., after being partially shaped, are boiled, and put into a bending machine, in which they are gradually screwed up to the required form.

Bent

Compound of Hæmatoglobulin with Carbonic Oride. On passing a stream of carbonic oxide through an aqueous solution of blood crystals, blood corpuscles, or even defibrinated blood, cooling the liquid to 0°, and then adding alcohol, crystals of the above mentioned compound are obtained. They are bluish red in colour, less soluble, and more stable than the crystals of oxyhæmoglobin. Compounds of hæmatoglobulin with nitrogen dioxide, with hydrocyanic acid, and with potassic cyanide, have also been obtained. [HEMATIN, E. C. S.]*(Hoppe Seyler, Zeits. Chem. v. 243.)

HÆMATÓLIN [HÆMATIN, E. C. S.].
HÆMATOPORPHYRIN (HEMATIN, E. C. S.].
HÆMATOSIN [HÆMATIN, E. C. S.].

HÆMATOXYLIN. CHO.:

=

C.H,Ho,

C.H. (C32H14012). (CH,Ho

HAGIOGRAPHA, HAGIOGRAPHER, HAGIOGRAPHY. Each of these words is compounded of the Greek äyios, sacred, holy, and the verb ypdow, to write. The Hagiographa, or Sacred Writings, formed one of the groups into which the Jews were accustomed to distribute the books of the Old Testament; the other divisions being the Law, or the five Books of Moses, and the Prophets. The Jews recognised the canonical character of however, they differenced from that of the Law and the Prophets, whose inspiration by oral delivery, or by dreams, visions, ecstasies, and other apparatus of visible revelation, was accounted more authoritative than that which consisted in the divine guidance of the mind and the pen of the writers of books of holy hymns and precepts of morality, as, by hypothesis and a somewhat loose definition, the Hagiographa were. The last-named books were, therefore, omitted from the honour, common to the Law and the Prophets, of being publicly, or at least regularly, read in the Jewish Synagogue; although the Christian Church has in all ages freely adopted them into its lectionary. Further, the Jews excluded the Book of Daniel from the Prophets, and reckoned it amongst the Hagiographa, the disabilities of which, so far as the public reading was concerned, it shared. The most exclusive Jewish classification of the Hagiographa admits only the Book of Psalms, the Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Solomon; whilst the most comprehensive includes, besides these, the Book of Job; the Book of Daniel; the Books of Ezra and Nehemiah, reckoned as one; the two Books of the Chronicles, also reckoned as one; the Book of Ruth; the La mentations of Jeremiah; the Book of Esther; and Ecclesiastes,

or the Preacher. From this list, the Christian classification deducted the Book of Daniel and the Lamentations, attributing to them their proper prophetical pretensions. An allusion to the Hagiographa as aλa máτpia Biẞxía, other books of our fathers, and as Tà AoiTà Tv BIBAíwr, the rest of the books, occurs in the Prologue of the Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach,' written about B.C. 133; and Christ is supposed to have employed the word "Psalms" generically for the entire Hagiographa, in Luke xxiv., 44; but it was only in the latter part of the fourth century that the word itself was first used by Epiphanius. The expression Hagiographa was frequently used during the middle ages as synonymous with Apocrypha; and it has also been employed, in a fuller sense, and more in accordance with its etymological value, as synonymous with Holy Scripture.

The word Hagiographer is descriptive of a writer of Hagiographa, and his science or art is correctly described as Hagiography, a term which is used of the writings devoted to the exhibition of the lives, deeds, and histories of saints or holy persons. Of all modern achievements in the way of Hagiography, the Acta Sanctorum' may be cited as the most stupendous, and its authors, the Bollandists, as the most indefatigable of Hagiographers.

HAGIOSCOPE, in Gothic architecture, an oblique opening through the wall of a church made to allow a view of the altar. The hagioscope, by some writers called a Squint, is usually a narrow aperture, little more than a slit, but more or less splayed, carried through the north-east angle of the south aisle, and the south-east angle of the north aisle, towards the high altar; but it occurs in various other places, and is sometimes arched in form and ornamental in appearance. Thus, at St. Mary's church, Guildford, Surrey, there are hagioscopes in the chapel of St. Mary, on the south side of the chancel, and that of St. John the Baptist on the north, in both instances, however, directed to the high altar; and what is more unusual, there are in the same church apertures (now filled with painted glass) in the external wall, under the west windows of both the north and south aisles, which appear to have been made to afford persons outside the church a view of the high altar, or to see the host when elevated. An upper chamber at the east end of Wingfield church, Suffolk, has one of these openings directed to the high altar; and they are in several instances found in the parvises, or rooms over church porches, as at Harrow, Middlesex. Similar apertures are also found in the upper chambers of church towers, as at Stockbury, Kent, made probably, as has been suggested, for the use of the person ringing the sanctus bell; while at Bridgewater church, Somerset, there is "a series of openings through three successive walls, following the same oblique line." (Parker.) These were made, no doubt, for the same purpose as the hagioscopes in church towers.

HAIR. The "hair harvest" [HAIR MANUFACTURES, E. C. vol. iv. col. 607] varies much in activity, according to the prevailing fashions. The importers of women's hair, for making up into chignons, &c., have made their purchases in Germany chiefly during the last few years, on account of the golden or yellowish colour prevalent in that country. [CHIGNON, E. C. S. col. 522.] As some elderly ladies wear chignons and other arrangements of false hair, and wish the material to present the natural tint of advancing years, grey hair is bought by the dealers for this purpose; but very little of it can be obtained. Hair powdering, like the wearing of false hair, must be regarded simply as an affair of fashion or custom. It originated in France, among strolling players at a fair, and gradually became fashionable in various parts of Europe. The powder usually consisted of pulverised starch, scented with violet or some other perfume. The English legislature took cognizance of the fashion in two ways-in the middle of the last century, by enforcing a penalty for adulterating the starch with any cheaper kind of powder; and about the end of the century, by laying a tax on the users or wearers of hair-powder.

HAIR-DYES. The practice of dyeing the hair is so common as to lead to the preparation of many liquids and ointments for the purpose. A common mixture consists of charcoal and grease. The liquid dyes have usually a basis of lead or silver; but bismuth, copper, and iron, pyrogallic acid, and walnut juice, are also employed. The leaden comb recommended for this purpose is uncertain and slow in action. It should be understood that the dyes which contain nitrate of silver stain the skin as well as the hair, and that the lead dyes are slow poisons. The hair is sometimes stained by criminals to disguise themselves. The fraud is detected, if there is time for it, by the growth of fresh hair of the natural colour. When

lead has been used, it may be detected by digesting in dilute nitric acid, and silver by using weak chlorine water or hydrochloric acid. Silver, lead, and the other metals that yield darkcoloured sulphites, are used to darken the hair. For giving to black hair a golden tint, weak nitric or nitro-muriatic acid have been lately used. Chlorine water is less successful. Horsehair and bristles have sometimes to be dyed. The ordinary liquid dyes for wool and silk answer the purpose.

HAIR ORNAMENTS have from time immemorial been adopted by all classes of people. Each era brought with it its different style, from mere little bits of beads and jewels, to designs of extravagant and weighty elaboration. Eastern kings were buried with their ornaments, and upon most of the mummies and mummy cases, it is usual to find some design for the hair. Those worn by Egyptian kings on state occasions were the crowns of the upper and lower country, or a union of the two, called the pschent. They were not discarded even in battle, for a king was never visible without a head-covering. Sometimes they were only of woollen material or of striped linen which extended to the shoulders, bound with a queue of ribbon. Others were like wigs (nams) made of linen or false hair, plain or plaited. Of these nams there were several varieties, embellished with an asp, emblem of royalty. The ladies of Egypt enclosed their hair in bands of gold embellished with a flower in the centre; these bands bound the hair from the temples. They used also combs and pins to match the centre ornament of the fillet. They wore their hair very long, plaited in numerous plaits, sometimes fastened two or three together, with ribbon to match the colour, brought close to the face, or the front portion was raised, waved, and fastened into position by means of gum or some adhesive substance. This has been found perfect upon unrolled mummies, save that the shade of hair has turned, owing to the intense heat necessarily required in the process of embalming. Slaves were not permitted to wear their hair like their mistresses, the back portion was plaited and "looped" up. In a Theban tomb of the first century, was discovered a chaplet of olive leaves, made of copper richly gilt. This tomb belonged to one who held a high office, but these chaplets were usual accompaniments of burial at the Greek period; and various collections contain examples from Greek and Etruscan tombs: one with an asp is now in the Museum at Leyden.

The Egyptians of the present day wear their heads closely shaven, with a small black or brown scull cap, the red tarbooth not being possessed by all and only used on festivals. The women cover their heads with a shawl with flowing ends, one of which they arrange so as to draw over their face when passing a stranger, and a white kerchief secured by an agal, or woollen cord; or they suspend tassels spangled with pendants of coins, or use a high turban also adorned with coins, to which is affixed a thin white vail, which flows over the shoulder. The Yezide women cover their heads with turbans and scarfs, within which they place leaves of myrtle, lotus, and bay, and flowers, or have little caps entirely covered with coins; even the poorest classes loop up their hair with pendants of shells, mother of pearl, glass beads, and bangles of silver.

Upon the Assyrian sculptures figures are represented with embroidered head-dresses, portions of which are gathered up at the back of the head. Others have a sort of fringed shawl, with the ends hanging down, hiding the ears, neck, and hair, which is worn very long (fig. 1).

On the Greek vases occur the simple taenia or fillet, the wreath, the mitre, the tiara. Hera is delineated with a Stephane (fig. 2) or diadem, covered with a Kalumma or vail,