still resting on the same principle, and treated every such naturalised citizen found in arms against the British crown as guilty of high treason, and, consequently, not entitled to the rights of war.

The inconvenience of this extreme doctrine with regard to the indelibility of natural allegiance, when a conflict of rights drew on a dispute of other sovereign nations with our own, and the provocation offered to other powers thereby to resent our claims, justified the legislature in altering the law. Any British subject who had before the 33 and 34 Vict. c. 14 (and see c. 102), or since, when in any foreign state, and not under any disability, voluntarily become naturalised in such state, shall from and after the time of his so having become naturalised in such foreign state, be deemed to have ceased to be a British subject, and be regarded as an alien. He is not thereby discharged, however, from any liability in respect of any acts done before the date of his so becoming an alien. But such British subject so naturalised abroad may, by declaration made by him with that intent, continue his British nationality; with this qualification, that he shall not, when within the limits of the foreign state in which he has been naturalised, be deemed to be a British subject, unless he has ceased to be a subject of that state in pursuance of the laws thereof. A British subject who, at the time of his birth under the law of a foreign state, became also a subject of that state, may, by a similar declaration of alienage, cease to be a British subject. The same right is extended to naturalised aliens where a convention, followed by an Order in Council for the transfer of such naturalised subject of a foreign state to that state, has been agreed to; in that case a declaration of alienage destroys the British nationality.

There is a local allegiance to the sovereign power of the territory which no stranger, not himself a sovereign or the representative of one, may disown while in that territory. He is thereby bound to observe all the laws of public order, so long as he remains within the alien jurisdiction.

An alien, while he remains within the jurisdiction, is, on the other hand, entitled to protection and justice, in accordance with the police and laws of the land. His rights of property vary with the country in which he sojourns. In England, until within a very recent period, he could not have a lease of lands. A lease of a house for habitation was allowed only in the case of an alien merchant-other personal property he might hold and dispose of as he pleased, either during his lifetime or by will after death.

Now, however, by the Naturalisation Act, 1870, real and personal property of every description may be taken, acquired, held, and disposed of by an alien in the same manner in all respects as by a natural-born British subject; and a title to real and personal property of every description may be derived through, from, or in succession to an alien, in the same manner in all respects as through, from, or in succession to a naturalborn British subject. Provided—

(1.) That this section shall not confer any right on an alien to hold real property situate out of the United Kingdom, and shall not qualify an alien for any office or for any municipal, parliamentary, or other franchise.

(2.) That this section shall not entitle an alien to any right or privilege as a British subject, except such rights and privileges in respect of property as are hereby expressly given to

him.

act.

(3.) That this section shall not affect any estate or interest in real or personal property to which any person has or may become entitled, either mediately or immediately, in possession or expectancy, in pursuance of any disposition made before the passing of this act, or in pursuance of any devolution by law on the death of any person dying before the passing of this Naturalisation. Certificates of naturalisation may be applied for to one of Her Majesty's principal secretaries of state by an alien who within such limited time before making the application as may be allowed, has resided in the United Kingdom for a term of not less than five years, or has been in the service of the Crown for a term of not less than five years, and intends, when naturalised, either to reside in the United Kingdom, or to serve under the Crown.

An alien, to whom a certificate of naturalisation is granted, shall, in the United Kingdom, be entitled to all political and other rights, powers, and privileges, and be subject to all obligations, to which a natural-born British subject is entitled or subject in the United Kingdom, with this qualification, that he shall not, when within the limits of the foreign state of which

he was a subject previously to obtaining his certificate of naturalisation, be deemed to be a British subject unless he has ceased to be a subject of that state in pursuance of the laws thereof, or in pursuance of a treaty to that effect.

A natural-born British subject who has become an alien by virtue of this act, and therefore called a statutory alien, may apply in like manner for a certificate of nationality, and if the same be granted to him he resumes his rights as a British subject, except within the limits of the state of which he remains a subject.

No naturalised alien is entitled to become owner or part owner of a British ship. The rights of the national flag at sea are thus preserved free from those compromising questions which carry with them the importance of international difficulties, and possibly the consequences of war.

National Status of married women and infant children. (1.) A married woman shall be deemed to be a subject of the state or which her husband is for the time being a subject.

(2.) A widow being a natural-born British subject, who has become an alien by or in consequence of her marriage, shall be deemed to be a statutory alien, and may as such, at any time during widowhood, obtain a certificate of readmission to British nationality in manner provided by this act.

(3.) Where the father being a British subject, or the mother being a British subject and a widow, becomes an alien in pursuance of this act, every child of such father or mother who during infancy has become resident in the country where the father or mother is naturalised, and has, according to the laws of such country, become naturalised therein, shall be deemed to be a subject of the state of which the father or mother has become a subject, and not a British subject.

(4.) Where the father, or the mother being a widow, has ob tained a certificate of readmission to British nationality, every child of such father or mother who during infancy has become resident in the British dominions with such father or mother, shall be deemed to have resumed the position of a British subject to all intents.

(5.) Where the father, or the mother being a widow, has obtained a certificate of naturalisation in the United Kingdom, every child of such father or mother who during infancy has become resident with such father or mother in any part of the United Kingdom, shall be deemed to be a naturalised British subject.

The power of legislating for the naturalisation of aliens within their own territories is conferred on the British colonies, subject, as in the case of other laws or ordinances, to be disallowed by Her Majesty.

NATURALISATION [NATIONALITY, E. C. S.].

NATURE PRINTING [PRINTING, E. C. vol. vi. col. 766]. NAUSEA (from vaûs, a ship), a qualm, or sensation of sickness, such as that which precedes the act of vomiting in persons suffering at sea.

NAUTILUS PROPELLER [HYDRAULIC PROPELLER, E.C.S.]. NAVAL RESERVE [NAVY, E. C. S.].

NAVIGATION, INLAND [CANAL, E. C. vol. ii. col. 543]. NAVY. The British fleet having been almost wholly reconstructed since the publication of NAVY [E. C. vol. v. col. 896], it may be convenient to trace the chief stages of advance under four headings-converted wooden ships, broadside iron-clads, turret ships, and rams. Torpedo warfare has not yet affected the construction of English war-ships.

Converted Wooden Ships.-The screw steam line-of-battle ship (of which the Duke of Wellington' has been the finest specimen) was the type of the best ships in the navy in 1853; in which year the Russians destroyed the Turkish fleet at Sinope, by the fire of concussion shells from guns of large calibre and great precision. It was perceived at once that wooden ships could not withstand such an attack; and attention was directed to a proposal made so far back as 1821 by General Paixhans, to cover war-ships with an armour of iron plates. When the Crimean war was ended, the Emperor of the French directed M. Dupuy de Lôme to prepare plans for adapting wooden ships to receive plate armour. La Gloire and L'Invincible were commenced on this system in 1857, and the Normandie in 1858. By having only one tier of guns, the naval architect was able so to reduce the weight that the vessel could bear a cuirass of armour plates 4 inches thick. The ships had the handiness of frigates with the power of two-deckers.

Mr. Scott Russell had proposed to the English government, in 1855, the construction of an armour-plated ship; and various naval architects and shipbuilders had made suggestions; but

ironclads in the first reserve, 9; non-iron-clads in the first reserve (gunnery, training, depôt, troop, store, and drill ships), 43; tenders, 67. The total number of men and boys borne on the navy books is 60,000. The seamen and boys, in vessels actually on service, are 46,000, including coast-guard and India troop-ships. About 4000 of the boys are under training. The marines number 14,000. The expenditure for effective services for the year is 7,917,8591., of which 3,750,000l. is for active services (pay, salaries, &c.) and 4,167,8591. for shipbuilding, stores, &c.; the non-effective services (half pay, pensions, &c.) about 1,954,8261.; making the total estimated cost of the navy 9,872,7251. The "first reserve," above mentioned, is a new organization to supplement the fleet in actual commission. One new item of 18,000l. is for a Naval College just established (1873) at Greenwich Hospital; and 13,9137. is for increase in the scientific branch of the service.

A few words may be added concerning foreign navies. France, as we have seen, preceded England in the construction of ironclads, in the form both of converted wooden ships and of massive iron batteries. By the year 1861, she had 3 broadside ironclads ready, and 17 building or converting; she remained ahead of England until 1865, when the balance began to preponderate in the other direction. She has now in all 8 ironclads, 5 frigates, and 36 sloops and gunboats. Italy has had ironclads built in private yards in England; and so have Spain and Greece. The Austrian ironclad Ferdinand Max gained European fame by ramming and sinking the Italian ironclad Ré d'Italia at Lissa. Besides other ironclads built in England for Turkey, one, of great power, designed by Mr. Reed, was sold to Prussia, and is now known as the König Wilhelm; it is one of the finest broadside ironclads afloat. In all, Germany has 1 ironclad, 6 corvettes and sloops, 4 gunboats, and 1 despatch vessel. Belgium and Holland have small ironclad navies. Denmark had a turret ship, the Rolf Krage, designed by Captain Cowper Coles, before England possessed one; it took part in the Schleswig-Holstein war. Russia, besides many of smaller size, is building an ironclad on the plan of the 'Devastation,' called the 'Peter the Great;' the Russians claim that it is to be the most powerful war-ship in the world. America has 2 ironclads, 3 store-ships, and 40 other ships, making 45 in all. Brazil, Chili, and Peru are among the states which have had ironclads built in England; and there is a tendency in most maritime countries to depend no longer on the defensive qualities of wooden ships or unplated iron ships.

NEBULE. The results of spectroscopic observations have led to some interesting conclusions respecting the physical constitution of this class of bodies. The subject viewed in this light was first taken up by Huggins in 1864. The spectrum of the nebula H 4374 was found by him to consist merely of three bright lines. It followed as a necessary consequence that the substance of the nebula was neither a solid nor liquid body in a state of incandescence, but simply a luminous gas. The brightest of these lines was found to coincide with the brightest line in the spectrum of hydrogen which is a double line. The faintest coincided with the hydrogen line F of the solar spectrum. The middle line did not present a coincidence with any of the lines contained in the spectra of any known terrestrial element. It approaches however very nearly in position to the barium line Ba.

According to Huggins nebulæ may be supposed to consist of two classes of bodies:

1. Nebula exhibiting a spectrum of one or more bright lines.

2. Nebula exhibiting an apparently continuous spectrum. The nebula of the first class may be supposed to be purely gaseous. Of 60 nebulæ observed with the spectroscope, about a third belong to this class. The following is a list of them* :4373 37 H. IV. 6 E.

Annular Nebula in Lyra.

4390

4447

4964

18 H. IV.

It would seem that the nebula presenting a continuous spectrum are in reality clusters of stars, and that those which exhibit spectra of one or more bright lines consist merely of masses of gaseous matter.

NEBULY [HERALDRY, E. C. vol. iv. col. 666].

NECKLACE, an ornament worn round the neck by persons of both sexes in times of remote antiquity, but afterwards by females only. Numerous specimens of Assyrian, Egyptian, Indian, Persian, and Etruscan necklaces of very early date may be seen in various museums, the simplest form being that of a number of berries, small pieces of glass (similar in shape to those which are now known as "bugles"), amber, amethyst, or some similar material strung together. To these, in process of time, were added pendants of various forms, such as beetles, hippocampi, hearts, leaves, small tags, bullæ, &c., which hung below the beads or chain at regular intervals, and lay flat upon the neck when worn. Among the Greeks and Romans necklaces were more especially adopted by ladies as a bridal ornament, and there are many elegant examples of these in the British Museum, and similar collections in foreign countries. Favourite horses and other animals were occasionally adorned with necklaces, and they were sometimes placed as offerings upon the statues of Venus, Minerva, and other goddesses, being made of gold and precious stones, and some of them of great value. They were originally fastened round the neck by a simple hook, but these gradually became more elegant in shape and ingenious in conNeckstruction, and at last clasps were substituted for them. laces of various forms occur frequently in ancient paintings, and may be seen in great variety on Etruscan, Greek, and Pompeian vases. In modern times necklaces, which are made of almost every kind of material, from the commonest plated metal up to

5 K

gold, and from glass to diamonds, may be purchased at all prices, ranging from a few pence up to thousands of pounds. NECROMANCY (VEкроuaνтeía, an oracle of the dead), divination by calling up and holding communion with a dead person. [DIVINATION, E. C. S. col. 774-5.] The most familiar example of this mode of divination is that of the raising of Samuel by the Witch of Endor at the instigation of Saul (1st Sam. xxviii. 8-20). The corresponding classical instance is that of the consultation of the spirit of Teiresias by Ulysses as related in the Necromanteia." (Odys., b. xi.) The most famous Greek "oracles of the dead" were at the Tomb of Teiresias near Thebes, at Heraclea, and by Lake Aornos, in the country of the Thesprotians. [ORACLE, E. C. vol. v. col. 67.] NEO-PLATONISTS were the adherents of a system of philosophy, sometimes called Eclecticism, which from the 3rd to the end of the 5th century of the Christian era represented a union between Hellenic and Oriental thought, the principle of which union was sought in the higher portion of Platonism. Its head-quarters were fixed at Alexandria, which, from its geographical position, became at once the entrepôt of commerce, the centre of intellectual coalescence, and the high arena of speculative conflict. Attempts after the reconciliation of the Oriental philosophy with that of Greece, and especially of the Academy, had previously been made by Jewish philosophers of Alexandria; and particularly in the first century by Philo Judæus, who has been regarded as the first of the Neo-Platonists, and who discovered a basis of agreement in the sacred writings of the Jews, which he regarded for the most part as allegories having a sense transcendental to any literal interpretation. It is, however, to Plotinus, A.D. 203-270, a pupil of Ammonius Saccas, that the distinction belongs of being the founder of the Neo-Platonic school. Ammonius, who was probably an apostate from the Christian faith, had opened an eclectic school of which the principal object was to blend together Platonism and Aristotelianism; and Plotinus, one of whose fellow-disciples was Longinus the Sublime, conceived and elaborated, in several learned works, the idea of a still more comprehensive eclecticism than that of his master, who omitted to reduce his opinions to writing. The principal representatives of this school after Plotinus (203-270) were Porphyry (233-about 304); Iamblichus (died about 333); Hierocles (flourished about 450); and Proclus (412-483). Upon these rested the development of the collective body of the Alexandrian notions-the metaphysical part being chiefly developed by Plotinus, the logical part by Porphyry, the theosophic and liturgical part by Iamblichus, whilst Proclus, continuing the ideas of his predecessors, devoted himself especially to giving them systematic connection. Their eclecticism was so comprehensive that scarcely any form of belief was rejected as incapable of amalgamation with their doctrines, or of elevation to the level of these; against Christianity alone they were at war, an attitude which was in great measure forced upon them by the dogmatic exclusiveness of Christianity itself. Yet they did not disdain to borrow numerous particulars from Christianity, all that was true in which they professed to have incorporated with their own system. They endeavoured, for example, to approximate to the doctrine of the Trinity, which they corrupted in the process, and in a certain sense they recognised the necessity of a mediator; whilst Iamblichus, in his theory of symbolic rites as the channels of divine grace, copied the Catholic doctrine of the sacraments. Generally speaking, the Alexandrian philosophy contains no element which is not to be found in the anterior doctrines of Oriental philosophy, of Platonism, or of Aristotelianism; its distinctive characteristic being at first the confused syncretism, and gradually the more clearly organised eclecticism, of those doctrines.

The 17th century saw the rise, within the University of Cambridge, of a band of so-called Platonic divines who formed one great division of that "latitudinarian" or moderate religious party, who sought in the peaceful recesses of reason an asylum from those polemical storms which were ravaging the world, and who reconciled to religion many discursive and restless spirits to whom the highest truth in a popular form was little grateful. Dr. Henry More, the founder of the school of English Platonists, which included such men as Cudworth, Whichcote, and Worthington, "held intellectual intuition as the source of all philosophical knowledge, and maintained that all the true and legitimate notions which philosophy possesses proceeded from a divine revelation. He attempted to establish the existence of an immutable space, distinct from all mutable matter, as the principle of all life and all motion, both in the spiritual

and material world. Reality consists in extension. God himself, in His being and absolute substance, is space. The human soul, and the soul of animals, are simple and yet extended. In morals, the science of living wisely and happily, he combines the principles of Plato and Aristotle." (Dr. C. S. Henry's Translation of the Epitome of the History of Philosophy; Ritter's History of Ancient Philosophy: Philo Judæus, On the Allegories of the Sacred Laws, and other treatises; Cattermole's Literature of the Church of England.)

NEROLI, in perfumery, the essential oil of orange-flowers, obtained by distillation with water.

NET; BOBBIN NET [LACE MANUFACTURE, E. C. vol. v. col. 70; LACE, MACHINE, E. C. S. col. 1427].

NETS; NET MAKING. The nets used by fishermen are formed on the same principle as bobbin net: that is, the threads surounding every mesh are twisted and secured in a way not necessary in the weaving of textile fabrics; but the similarity is rude and coarse. In hand-netting a flat piece of wood is used, and also a peculiar double-eyed needle, with a notch or smooth cleft at each end, and a slender shank. A large quantity of string or twine is wound from end to end of the needle, passing into the notches to prevent slipping. The slow making of the meshes by these simple instruments, looping and knotting the twine, need not be described; it is practised by the fishermen of all maritime nations, even the most rude. Whether the thread be thick or thin, and whether made of hemp, flax, jute, or other fibre, the process of making is nearly the same. Cotton has been introduced for the purpose within the last few years. The principal kinds of net used in fishing are the seine, the trawl, and the drift net, differing not so much in the shape of the mesh as in its diameter, the thickness of the twine, and the size and form of the net. Various kinds of net are used in catching birds and some quadrupeds. Gardeners also require many kinds, for protecting crops from birds, and the blossoms of trees from frost, &c. Some of this netting is made up to eight yards wide, and is sold at 2d. to 4d. per square yard at a small additional charge they are tanned or made weather-proof. Patent wool-netting, with nine meshes to the square inch, is a more expensive article, for special purposes. Worsted netting, for protecting the bloom of peach trees; elastic hexagon garden nets, to shelter fruit trees and flower beds from birds and insects; sheep-folding nets, made of cocoa-nut fibre; square-mesh nets, for enclosing poultry yards and pheasantries are among the numerous kinds made. Other sorts are required in the manufacturing arts. Recently machine net-making has been established on a considerable scale in Scotland [FISHING TACKLE, E. C. S. col. 1005].

NETTING, on shipboard, is employed for various purposes. The hammock-netting, near the sides of the ship, is made into a receptacle for the sailors' hammocks and bedding during the day time; when thus filled it is a convenient bulwark against musketry from an enemy's ship. The boarding-netting is stretched out above the sides of a ship, in presence of the enemy during the night, to prevent the entrance of boarding parties from boats. The hatchway-netting, made, like the former, of strong thick rope, is stretched over an open hatchway, to prevent sailors or passengers from falling through to the next lower deck. NETTLE-RASH, a disease of the skin, named from its close resemblance to the sting of the nettle, both in appearance and in the itching that attends it. It is transient, free from danger, and usually traceable to the eating of shell-fish or of some other food which disagrees habitually with the person attacked. The scientific name is urticaria. [SKIN, DISEASES OF, E. C. vol. vii. col. 506.]

NEUROSES

(from νευρον, a nerve), nervous diseases. Diseases of the nervous system.

NEUTRALITY, NEUTRALS. Neutrality is a term by which International Law designates the relation sustained by a nation at peace with other nations that are at war. Peace is a condition of neutrality. By peace, however, is intended not merely the not conducting of armies and sending forth of fleets to share in the strife, but abstinence from anything that would be of advantageous assistance to one of the belligerents against the other. The neutral sovereign is therefore bound not to permit the passage of troops through his territory to the aid of either of the combatants, or to allow his territory, or the shores of it, to be made the basis of hostile operations. Of course, the sending of his troops or of his fleet, the loan of his transports, the supply of ordnance or ammunition to either of the belligerents would be a violation of his neutrality, tantamount to a declaration of war. The neutral sovereign may not even sell the means or materials of war without in like manner compromising his neu