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and are fit for building without burning. In his last proposition he uses silicates of potash and soda along with the above, before moulding. The processes were employed at the Albert Hall and the International Exhibition buildings, South Kensington: the bricks have an attractive appearance, and the plastering on the walls took on a fine polish; but the durability of both, when exposed to atmospheric changes, must be decided by experience. A company, the Selenitic Cement and Concrete Building Company (limited) has been formed for working General Scott's patents.

Mr. Large's concrete bricks are similar in principle to the preceding two examples, but the process of manufacture is more simple and expeditious owing to the powerful machinery used. Indeed, Ransome's stone and Scott's bricks are both made of concrete, and the writer has seen the materials of each more successfully made into brick by Large's machine than by the slower and more expensive process of handmoulding. And besides the question of time and expense, the materials in Large's process are in a semi-dry state; hence the bricks come from the moulds drier and harder, and do not suffer change of form in the handling and drying like bricks made of plastic materials.

over the second mould from the left-hand side, directly under the imprint Large's Patent. It is actuated by bent-lever mechanism from a reciprocating cam on the farther side of the large spur-wheel, driven by a spur-pinion on the shaft of the fly-wheel. A friction cam-roller on the front of the large spur-wheel actuates a bent-axial lever furnished with a long friction-roller at the lower extremity of its opposite arm. This arm is for pushing forward the mould with its contents under the head of the compressing piston; the mould with the newlypressed brick a stage forward; the third mould under the emptying piston on the right-hand side, which presses the brick downward through an opening in the table on to the head of a third piston carried, on the end of a weighted lever seen below the table. The weight brings up the empty piston to receive the brick, but the brick being heavier than the weight presses it down, to be itself removed by the attendant. As soon as the second or emptying piston rises, a horizontal piston, actuated by a cam on the front of the large spur-wheel, pushes the empty mould forward upon the table to be refilled, and placed before the arm on the left side. In this way from 5000 to 6000 concrete bricks are made daily, ready for the builder in a few days without burning. The key-handle, conspicuously seen on the left side, is for throwing the machine out of and into gear. automatic movement of the machine is twofold-the one exclusively for compressing the bricks, and the other for shifting and emptying the moulds; the two are well contrived for economising motive-power and producing the greatest effect, and the

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mechanism for effecting these important results is simple and free from complication. Thus as each incline of the reciprocating cam forms a half-circumference, the compressing piston rises and falls at each revolution of the large spur-wheel. During the downward movement the whole power of the machine, including the momentum of the fly-wheel, is applied in compressing the bricks; but in rising, when little power is consumed in performing the other movements, the reserve power is stored up in the fly-wheel.

Mr. Large only covers his machine by patent. The chemical part of his project he keeps a secret; but an inexpensive binding

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material is used similar in principle to the other two examples. Burnt clay, gravel, furnace-slag, quarry chips, and most kinds of rock can be broken sufficiently fine by a stone-breaker for mixing, and the mixed material is put into the moulds and compressed in a semi-dry state. Moulds can be made to turn out blocks of any desired form. In many places concrete bricks can be made where houses and other buildings are to be erected, thus saving cartage. The machine is also used in compressing common clay bricks, fire-bricks, and other articles that require burning; likewise in compressing peat, charcoal, small coal, &c., into blocks for fuel.

STONE-BREAKER. Machines for breaking stones by steampower are producing important results. Many mines, iron works, and quarries could not have been worked at the present time without them; while new ones are being opened which could not have been profitably worked even before the present rise in the price of labour took place. They are also being largely used in countries unfavourable to manual labour. Breaking stones, iron ore, copper ore, &c., is toilsome work even in our temperate climate, and, besides its enslaving character, the large bodies of men required cannot be organised to go through much work. The reverse is the case with steam-power machines. A great variety of stone-breakers are now in use. struction they differ, but in principle they closely resemble each other. That of Mr. Marsden, of Leeds, has been noticed with illustrations under MANURE, MANUFACTURE OF, E. C. S. col. 1514. It continues to maintain its superiority, and at the Cardiff meet

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ing of the Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1872, the judges, after a fair trial, awarded it a silver medal, the highest prize at their disposal. The machine described under Manure Manufacture is worked by a strap from a detached engine, portable engines being generally used. But Mr. Marsden now (1873) makes stone-breakers with engine combined, the stone-breaker and engine working in the same framing. Thus the cylinder is placed vertically under the crank-shaft, being with the slideblock guides bolted to a vertical bed-plate. The crank of the crank-shaft is coupled to the piston-rod by a vertical connecting rod, and to the rocking lever, which actuates the toggles and jaw by a horizontal connecting-rod. Two fly-wheels work outside the framing, one on each end of the crank-shaft-the bearings of which are in the side framing. A projection on the lefthand side frame below carries the governor with its gearing driven by a strap over a pulley on the crank-shaft in the usual way. At the other side an excentric on the crank-shaft works the slide valve by means of a connecting rod. Another plan is to shorten the horizontal connecting-rod of the rocking-lever, and to place the connecting-rod, piston, and cylinder horizontally in a line with it, the chief working parts being thus on the top of the side framing. This plan suits some places better than the other, as the height of the machine is less. According to both these arrangements steam is obtained from a detached boiler by means of pipes. In places where the stone-breaker is a fixture, the boiler may be in close proximity to it. But portable stone-breakers are made to meet the requirements of those who cannot bring their stones, ore, &c., to the machine. In this case the boiler, engine, and stone-breaker are either combined upon the framing of a four-wheeled carriage-the boiler in front and the stone-breaker behind-or else the stone-breaker is in one carriage and the engine and boiler in another, in the form of a portable engine. Either example may be portable or semi-portable. When the three are combined, the road wheels may either be fixed or removed when breaking stones, as occasion requires; and when the stone-breaker is detached it may be worked either by a portable, semi-portable, or vertical steamengine, with or without its road wheels removed.

A working model of this machine was imported from the United States of America, and shown in the International Exhibition of 1862. It is the invention of Mr. Blake, Newhaven, Connecticut, and is generally known as Blake's stone-breaker. In October of that year a full-sized machine was imported and started by the Kirkless-Hall Iron Works, Wigan, in breaking iron ore and limestone at the rate of ten tons per hour, or 100 tons per day of ten hours. In consequence of the economy and advantage in using it, a second machine was started in August, 1863. Stone-breakers are now used at most iron works in this and other countries, as apart from the saving in manual labour, they make less dust and reduce the ore and limestone to a more uniform size for the furnace. Copper ore is also broken by them, and quartz in gold and other mines. General Fremont has five machines at work in California, crushing 500 tons of quartz daily for the stampers. They are used by emery grinders, manure manufacturers, and manufacturing chemists. Small machines are made for the laboratory of the working chemist. In granite and other hard-stone quarries they are used for breaking the chips and stones, not fit for building, into road metal and ballast for railways. Thus the refuse of quarries, which used to accumulate, covering much land and costing no little expense, now forms a source of profit to both quarrymen and road contractors. In agriculture good roads are one of the first requisites of good and successful farming, and the small expense at which stones can now be broken enables landowners, farmers, road contractors, and surveyors to procure road metal from a distance, which could not be done before. Stone-breakers are also used in limestone quarries for lime-burning. They are used in crushing the materials required in the manufacture of plate-glass, firebrick, artificial stone and concrete building material, cements, &c. In short, wherever stone or ore of any kind has to be broken or crushed, stone-breakers are now used.

STONE CIRCLES, ancient structures formed of large stones which are, in almost every instance, rough and unhewn, without tenons or mortices, invariably wanting in any legible inscriptions, chisel marks, or architectural mouldings, and with a very few rare exceptions, without any flint, bronze, or iron implements within their precincts; having, in a word, no indications whatever by which they can be compared with any other monuments. These circumstances, added to the fact that there is no existing record of their age or the object of their erection, has enveloped them in a cloud of silent mystery,

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so to speak, and has given rise to numberless theories respecting them. Hence, all speculations with regard to them have hitherto failed in determining with certainty either their date or the purposes to which they were originally applied. They have been variously ascribed to the Romans, the Danes, the Scandinavians, and other nations; they are said by some writers to have been temples dedicated to the worship of Apollo, Mercury, or some other heathen deities; by others to that of Odin, and by others to have been Dracontia, or places sacred to serpent or dragon worship, and the celebration of Ophic rites. Some again maintain that they were merely designed for the holding of large and important conclaves of the people when they assembled for the election of civic or religious dignitaries, for the purpose of delivering solemn harangues or judgments, debating matters of grave political urgency, or any other similar occasion which demanded more than ordinary consideration. Some authorities, again, style them " Druidical circles," and believe them to have been erected by the Druids for the celebration of their religious ceremonies, and the worship of the sun, the moon, the element of fire, and other striking natural phenomena. Some assert that they were observatories for astronomical uses, while many regard them as being sepulchral monuments connected with the solemn rites appertaining to the burial of the dead; and by many again they are considered as places both of worship and of council; and that, having been originally dedicated to the celebration of sacred rites, they afterwards became used as curice and fora, for assemblies of the people by whom they were erected. Hence, according to the widely antagonistic views taken of their origin and purpose, they have been ascribed to very different epochs. The first author who has been asserted (although apparently without any sufficient reason) to refer to them is Diodorus Siculus, who hands down to us (Hist.' lib. ii. cap. 47) an account derived, as he himself tells us, from Hecateus of Miletus, an historian who flourished B.C. 530, and who says that "across the ocean, opposite to the regions of the Celta, is an island not less than Sicily, very healthy and fertile, in which Latona is said to have been born, and therefore Apollo is especially venerated there." He adds that there is in this island "a magnificent shrine of Apollo, and a remarkable temple adorned with many offerings, circular in its shape, and a city sacred to the god." Those, therefore, who accept this description as applying to England and Stonehenge or Avebury, of course refer these megalithic circles to a period long anterior to the Christian era; others, again, who adhere to the Druidical theory, assert that they cannot be earlier than the invasion of Britain by Cæsar in A.D. 35; while others, again, assign to them a date subsequent to the destruction of the Roman empire. The opinion of Dr. James Fergusson is, that "first, such monuments are generally sepulchral, or connected directly or indirectly with the rites of the dead. Secondly, that they are not temples in any usual or appropriate sense of the term; and lastly, that they were generally erected by partially civilized races after they had come in contact with the Romans, and most of them may be considered as belonging to the first ten centuries of the Christian era." Sir John Lubbock, however, is inclined to attribute to them a much higher antiquity, and refers them to the third or "Bronze age" of prehistoric archæology, i. e. to a period of 1000 or more years before the Christian era; and there are recent antiquaries and geologists who affirm that some stone circles may have been in existence 10,000, 20,000, or even 50,000 years ago. It will thus be seen that even the latest authorities hold totally different opinions with regard to the dates, origin, and purposes of stone circles, and it is only from a perusal of their works in extenso that their long and elaborate arguments can be compared and weighed one against the other, as it would be obviously impossible even to epitomize the various grounds on which they found their theories, much less to examine them all in detail here. Again, their origin has been ascribed to the Chinese, the Indian Buddhists, the Pelasgi, the Etruscans, and other very ancient nations; but in this case also, none of the monuments to which antiquarian writers upon this subject point as their authority, are of a nature to establish the truth of their statements without much controversy and doubt. Stone circles, of greater or less extent, have been discovered in Africa, India, Persia, Mexico, the Continent of Europe, the British Isles, and, to quote the words of Sir John Lubbock, we might indeed say all over the world we find camps, fortifications, dykes, tumuli, menhirs, or standing stones, cromlechs or stone circles, dolmens or stone chambers, &c., many of which astonish us by their magnitude, while all of them excite our interest by the antiquity of their

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1991 STONE, DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF.

origin, and the mystery with which they are surrounded." [TUMULUS, E.C. vol. viii. col. 415.]

Although these circles are both numerous and important in Algeria, Denmark, and Sweden, it is in the British Isles that they exist in the greatest abundance, the most remarkable of them being those of Avebury, or Abury, and Stonehenge in Wiltshire, Stennis in Orkney, and Botallek, near St. Just, in Cornwall, Stanton Drew in Somersetshire, and nine stone circles near Winterborne Abbas, Dorsetshire. At the first named of these places there were two double concentric circles surrounded by an outer circle, which originally consisted of 180 stones, and contained an area of 28 acres and 27 perches [AVEBURY, Geog. Div. vol. i. col. 743]. At Stonehenge the fabric consisted also of two concentric circles of upright stones enclosing two ellipses, the whole being surrounded by a double mound and a circular ditch. The blocks of which the circles consisted were in this very rare instance all squared and rough-hewn and dovetailed to each other. Upon the upright blocks were stones placed horizontally also dovetailed to each other and fitted to the uprights by mortice holes in their under sides [WILTSHIRE (Stonehenge), E. C. GEOG. DIV. vol. iv. col. 1139], and the outer circle is nearly 108 feet in diameter. At Stennis again there was a double circle, the outer 360, the inner 104 feet in diameter. At Botallek the structure consisted of four intersecting circles, and with regard to that at Stanton Drew great uncertainty seems to prevail both with regard to its dimensions and the number of the stones of which it originally consisted. Numerous stone circles have been discovered in Scotland, of which descriptions will be found in the 'Archæologia' of the London Society of Antiquaries, vols. i. pp. 314–321; ii. 315-355; v. 220; xxii. 198–203, 409–411. In the same publication are accounts of and observations upon similar structures on Bradfield Common, co. York, vol. v. p. 94; near Neath, co. Glamorgan., vi. 29; at Durwood, in the Peak of Derbyshire, vii. 22; at Stanton Moor, in the same county, viii. 60. In vol. xxxv. pp. 232-258, will be found some most valuable information upon Celtic Megaliths by Frederick Collings Lukis, M.D., and in vol. xlii. Dr. Thurnam gives the result of his researches at Stonehenge, Avebury, and the surrounding neighbourhood.

In all these circles there was great variety in the size and number of the stones and the areas occupied by each of them, some being formed of only twelve stones and being no more than twelve feet in diameter; while others, such as Stonehenge and Avebury enclosed a considerable extent of ground, and consisted of a great many stones, but owing to many of them having been from time to time removed, authors differ very much as to their exact original number. Again, some of these circles have avenues leading up to them, some are found surrounding tumuli, some surrounding dolmens, and some contain neither tumuli nor dolmens; while most, if not all of them, have a single stone within their precincts, which appears to have served either for an altar, a rostrum for addressing public assemblies, or pillar for making astronomical observations, according to the various views of these circles which have been advocated by the authorities already alluded to in the course of this article.

(Sir R. C. Hoare, Ancient Wiltshire; W. Borlase's Antiquities, Historical and Monumental, of Cornwall; Dr. Stukely, Itinerarium Curiosum; J. J. A. Worsaae, Primeval Antiquities of England Illustrated by those of Denmark; Olaus Wormius, Monumenta Danica; Thos. Wright, Celt, Roman, and Saxon; Journal of the British Archæological Association, vols. viii. xv. and xvi.; John Stuart, Sculptured Stone Monuments of Scotland; Transactions of the Wiltshire Archaelogical and Natural History Society; Journal of the Royal Archæological Institute, vols. viii. xv.; Dr. James Fergusson, Rude Stone Monuments; Sir John Lubbock, PreHistoric Times as illustrated by Ancient Remains.)

STONE, DECAY AND PRESERVATION OF [ATMOSPHERIC INFLUENCE, E. C., vol. i. col. 694; STONE FOR BUILDING, E. C., vol. vii. col. 839]. In 1864 Mr. Abel, chemist to the War Office, superintended the application of several inventions to portions of the decayed stone carving on the outside of the Houses of Parliament, with a view to determine, if possible, whether the decay could be prevented from going farther. Silicate of soda, turpentine and lime, linseed oil and sulphur, asphaltum, and many other substances were recommended, to be employed as liquid paints or washes; and several of them were tried. In 1868 Mr. Abel was requested by the Government to report on the results, after four years weathering of these liquids. None of them were satisfactory: the best being Szerelmey's, which consists of a double coating-first, a liquid silicate, and

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then asphaltum; but it disfigures the stone, is only of transient service, and is costly. Mr. Abel expressed a belief that a simple coating of linseed oil was likely to be as efficacious as any of the others. Being requested to examine the stonework again in 1869, he was confirmed in his preference for linseed oil. Mr. Barry estimated that the oiling of the parts most affected would cost 5,000l.; the Government declined to sanction the outlay, and the process of decay is going on.

STONE IMPLEMENTS. Amongst the least civilised nations of present and past periods implements of all kinds are or were made of stone, bone, and other substances easy of access to barbarous people. In almost every part of the globe the discovery of artificially formed implements of flint, obsidian, jade, and other hard stones in deposits of considerable antiquity and associated with the remains of extinct mammalia show that the earliest inhabitants of areas now occupied by civilised people were acquainted with the use of non-metallic implements only. The stone implements present a great variety of forms adapted for numerous purposes; and they present different styles of manufacture characteristic of different periods of time or rather of distinct stages of civilisation. Thus the oldest flint implements were fashioned by pushing off flakes; but as civilisation advanced implements with smoothed and polished surfaces were made. The existence of the first kind only characterised the palaeolithic stone age; while the second marked the neolithic or polished stone age. The period of each age probably differed for the principal geographical areas; indeed there are nations which have, even now, scarcely passed out of their stone age. Stone implements are still constructed by the Esquimaux, some of the Indian tribes of North America, and various other tribes. For full information on this subject consult The Ancient Stone Implements, etc., of Great Britain,' by J. Evans; Sir J. Lubbock's Prehistoric Times;' the Archæologia,' and the 'Proceedings' of the Society of Antiquaries; the Archaological Journal,' and 'Journal of the Anthropological Society of London.' These, however, are only a few references to the literature of this subject which is of considerable extent. STORM GLASS, an ingenious toy, sometimes used in meteorology, but of no scientific value whatever. It is also named the "Chemical Weather Glass." It consists of a long glass tube containing a mixture of 2 drachms of camphor, 35 grains of nitre, and 38 grains of sal ammoniac dissolved in 9 drachms of water and 11 drachms of rectified spirit under a gentle heat. The tube is closed with a brass cap. When hung up in the window the crystalline changes are very pretty. Mr. Tomlinson examined the instrument in various ways, and arrived at the conclusion that it "acts as a rude kind of thermoscope, inferior for most purposes of observation to the thermometer." (Phil. Mag.' for August, 1863.)

STOUP (A. S., stoppa, a cup or basin; French, bénitier), in Roman Catholic churches, the stone basin for holy water fixed in the church porch or doorway, into which the members of the congregation dip their fingers before entering the church. In English churches the holy-water stoups were destroyed by authority at the Reformation, but examples, more or less mutilated, remain at Stanton Harcourt, Oxfordshire, Pylle, near Glastonbury, Somersetshire, and at several other country churches. Early examples occur fixed on pedestals, but they were mostly placed within an arched recess like a piscina, from which they only differed in not being connected with a drain. STOURBRIDGE CLAY [FIRE CLAY MANUFACTURES, E. C. S. col. 996].

STRANGULATION, DEATH BY, in Medical Jurisprudence, a form of violent death brought about by constriction of the throat without suspension of the body, and so technically distinguished from death by hanging. STRASS [GLASS MANUFACTURE: Artificial Gems, E. C., vol. iv. col. 395].

STRAW ELEVATORS [THRESHING MACHINES, E. C. S.). STRAW MANUFACTURES. Apart from the use of straw as fodder and litter, or packing and wrapping material, the chief employment is for making hats and bonnets [STRAW PLAIT MANUFACTURES, E. C., vol. vii. col. 845]. The fluctuations of fashion greatly affect this trade; but the processes continue without much alteration; and Luton, in Bedfordshire, is more than ever the head-quarters where it is carried on. Two plait-halls were opened there in 1869, for the convenience of plait dealers. One contains forty centre stalls, nineteen shops, and thirty movable tables to accommodate sixty of the smaller kind of dealers; the other contains thirty-two centre stalls, and forty side stalls. In these halls the hat and bonnet manufacturers of Luton buy the

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plait from the plaiters, mostly cottagers in all the villages for miles around. A particular kind of narrow straw-plait is imported from China; its price is so very low at the shipping ports, that it will pay the expense of freight and undersell English plait of similar quality, even in the Luton and Dunstable district, where it is made up into cheap hats and bonnets. Straw is largely used as an addition to rags, and exported as a material for paper [PAPER MANUFACTURE, É. C. vol. vi. col. 254; and E. C. S. col. 1643]. Straw pictures have occasionally been produced by splitting, flattening, dyeing, and disposing in the proper forms and colours: a trifling kind of mosaic, pretty but not artistic. Straw enters as a component element in many small manufactures of use and ornament, too unimportant separately to call for particularisation.

STREAM TIN; STREAM WORKS [TIN MANUFACTURE AND TRADE, E. C. vol. viii. col. 261; MINING, ibid. vol. v. col. 670].

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STRIKES [TRADES UNIONS, E. C. S.]. STRUTS [ROOF, E. C. vol. vii. col. 166, fig. 11]. STYRYLAMINE, Cinnylamine, CHN NH,(C,H,) (NC12H), a base obtained on heating styrylic chloride with alcoholic animonia. It forms small colourless crystals, which melt below 100°. It is insoluble in water, but easily soluble in ether. SUBMARINE NAVIGATION [TORPEDO, E. C. S.]. SUBMARINE TELEGRAPHY [TELEGRAPH, ELECTRIC, E. C. S.].

SUBMERSION [DROWNING, E. C. vol. iii. col. 679]. SUBMERSION FIGURES OF LIQUIDS, a term applied by Mr. Tomlinson ('Phil. Mag., June and Nov. 1864) to a remarkably beautiful and varied set of figures produced not like the COHESIVE FIGURES OF LIQUIDS [E. C. S. col. 756] on the surface, but by allowing a drop of a liquid to descend through a column of another liquid, when it breaks up into a figure varying with the nature of the liquid drop and that of the column. It is not possible to convey an idea of these figures without seeing the experiments or the engravings which represent them; but we may quote one example, namely, that of a drop of fousel oil in a column of paraffin oil, it being of course a condition that the drop shall be of greater density than the liquid of the column, while in the case of cohesion-figures the drop is of about the same or of less density than the liquid which forms the surface. The drop of fousel oil first forms a kind of dish bagging downwards, and this almost immediately expands upwards, swells out into a dome or cone, the boundary ring of the dish first formed expanding all the time; the point of the cone remains fixed in the liquid, while the lower edge becomes arched at four equidistant points, the edges of the arches being beautifully fringed, and lets fall lines with drops at the ends which form separate cones, each of which becomes arched and lets down other lines with drops. In this way a figure is produced of great beauty, and with an architectural kind of effect which is very striking. The duration is also considerable, and the texture of the figure is gauze-like and delicate. A distinct class of figures consists of what are called rolling rings, formed by separate drops of a solution such as that of common salt contained in a filter arranged so that distinct drops may fall at intervals of a second or two into a column of water. In such case the forces are (1) diffusion which forms the ring, (2) gravity which causes it to sink: the resistance is friction retarding (1) the descent of the ring, (2) its diffusion.

SUBSCRIPTION, CLERICAL. It was clearly the intention of those who drew up the XLII Articles in 1551 that they should be subscribed by the clergy, for a royal mandate issued June 19, 1553, requiring all existing incumbents to subscribe (the penalty for refusal being deprivation), and exacting subscription as a condition of future incumbency. But it was by no means generally acted upon, and the king's death prevented the enforcement of the mandate. The XLII Articles of 1551 became the XXXIX of 1562, and when these had been again ratified and confirmed (1571) by signatures of both Houses of Convocation of either province, an Act of Parliament was passed the same year requiring the clergy to "declare their assent, and subscribe to all the articles of religion, which only concern the confession of the true Christian faith and the doctrine of the Sacraments." Previously to this, in the early part of Elizabeth's reign, a certain document called the XI Articles, had been read by the clergy twice a year. Convocation, in 1571, made subscription to all the XXXIX necessary, avoiding the ambiguity which lurked in the words, "which only, &c.," and which gave rise to many legal questions. Subscription, however, was but carelessly enforced till Whitgift's primacy when it

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was vigorously pressed, and that prelate was, in fact, the author of those famous propositions which were afterwards known as the three Articles of the 36th Canon of 1603. By this no person could be received into the ministry, hold any living, or exercise any preaching function, without having signified his assent in very stringent terms to the King's Supremacy, the Prayer-Book, and the XXXIX Articles, as "all and every agreeable to the Word of God." Subscription was next enforced on the universities. The Oxford Convocation, 1573, required subscription before taking a degree, and, 1576, upon entering any college hall. Cambridge was more lenient, and it was not till July 7, 1613, that subscription was required even from bachelors or doctors of divinity. In 1616 the king required every person who took a degree to subscribe the three Articles of the 36th Canon, but such strict subscription was laid aside at Cambridge in 1640. At Oxford, however, it was exacted till quite recently. The Act of Uniformity of Charles II. imposed subscription upon all heads of colleges and halls, and Sheldon and his successors rigidly enforced the 36th Canon. An effort was made by an Arian school of Clergy, headed by Archdeacon Blackburne in 1771, to remove the imposition of tests, and petitions to that effect were presented to the House of Commons, but without producing any result. At the universities, however, concessions were made, and at Cambridge, 1772 and 1779, a simple declaration of membership with the Established Church was substituted for the older subscription in the case of graduates in arts, civil law, medicine, and music. The 19 & 20 Vict. c. 88 abolished subscription of any kind except in case of theological degrees, but continued the above declaration of church membership as a qualification for becoming a member of the senate. Subscription was abolished at Oxford for bachelors of arts, law, medicine, and music by the 17 & 18 Vict. c. 81, and by a recent enactmentthe Universities Tests Act, 1871-no one at Oxford, Cambridge, or Durham is required to subscribe any profession of faith for any degree, or the exercise of any right of graduates, except in divinity.

In 1864 a Royal Commission was issued to consider and revise the various forms of subscription and declaration required to be made by the clergy of the United Church of England and Ireland on ordination or appointment, &c., to any ecclesiastical dignity, and to report how far they might be altered, &c. It consisted of three archbishops, four bishops, and in addition to several clergy, members of both Houses of Parliament, and other laymen of the Church of England; and its recommendations resulted in the passing the 28 & 29 Vict., entitled "an Act to amend the Law as to Subscriptions, &c., to be taken by the Clergy of the Established Church of England and Ireland." It enacts that the following Declaration of Assent shall be made by all persons at ordination or institution, or on being licensed to a curacy, and that no other subscription shall be necessary :-" I, A. B., do solemnly make the following declaration: I assent to the XXXIX Articles of Religion, and to the Book of Common Prayer, and of the Ordering of Bishops, Priests, and Deacons. I believe the doctrine of the United Church of England and Ireland as therein set forth to be agreeable to the Word of God, and in Public Prayer and Administration of the Sacraments, Í will use the Form in the said Book prescribed, and none other, except so far as shall be ordered by lawful Authority."

In 1865 the Royal Licence was granted to the Convocations of Canterbury and York to alter or amend the 36th Canon and to substitute another. This was accordingly done, and the Canon thus brought into agreement with the Act of Parliament was published by letters patent, 1867. (Hardwick's History of the Articles; Prayer-Book Interleaved; Acts of Parliament, &c.)

SUBWAYS, tunnels of a particular class, carried through the streets of towns. The brick sewers of the metropolis are subways, though not usually so called. Some of the finest brickwork ever executed is presented in the four great arteries of the main drainage system of the metropolis, known as the high level, middle level, low level, and southern sewers, which, owing to the great depth beneath the roads and streets, were mostly excavated by tunnelling. The main artery of the Paris sewers, constructed during the reign of the late Emperor, when Baron Haussmann was prefect of the Seine, is a subway of analogous character; it extends for miles on both sides of the Seine, and is 15 feet wide by 18 high, with a pathway on each side, along which inspectors and workmen walk. This subway, it may be observed, is intended chiefly for carrying off rain water and street drainage, the cesspool system being still adopted for sewage. A subway for the conveyance of parcels and mail-bags is described in PNEUMATIC TRANSMISSION, E. C. S. col. 1714,

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A tunnel under the Thames, known as the Tower Subway, was opened in 1870. It is a cylindrical iron tube, 7 feet diameter, laid in a tunnel cut deep in the river bed. The work was begun at the two shore ends, at the bottom of shafts 10 feet diameter by 60 feet deep. An ingeniously constructed shield protected the workmen during the excavation of the horizontal tunnel, which is about 1320 feet long, at no part less distant than 32 feet below the bed of the river. The tube is built up of segments of thick iron plate, bolted together by flanges, and caulked in with tow and cement. The outside of the iron is protected from the damp earth by a layer of blue lias cement, nearly as hard as stone. When first opened, this subway was provided with an omnibus for passengers, running on a narrow-gauge railway laid along the bottom segment of the tube, and hauled by a fixed steam engine and a steel wire rope; but difficulties occurred in the working, and there is now nothing more than a footway through the tube.

Underground railways present the character of subways, when laid under, and parallel with, the roadways of the streets. The Metropolitan Railway, from Kensington to Moorgate Street, and the Metropolitan District Railway, from Kensington to the Mansion House, partake of this character. The whole length was constructed by open cutting from above, afterwards covered in. Subways of a useful kind have been constructed by the Metropolitan Board of Works, to avert an evil which used to be of frequent occurrence-the breaking-up of the street paving for the formation and repair of sewers, water-pipes, gas-pipes, and telegraph wires. When a new street is to be built, the construction of such a subway, beneath the proposed carriage-way, is one of the first works undertaken. In Garrick Street, near Covent Garden Market, the subway is 12 feet wide by 6 high; it contains water-pipes, gas-pipes, and telegraphic wires, and has side-openings to connect with the houses. The sewer is in another subway beneath it; but both are well provided with man-holes, ventilating-shafts, &c., to facilitate the prosecution of repairs without breaking up the surface road. Similar subways have been formed in other parts of the metropolis, where new lines of street have been laid out. The Holborn Valley Viaduct has beneath it a complicated series of subways, to accommodate the sewers, the pipes and wires, and the Pneumatic Despatch tube. Queen Victoria Street, the new thoroughfare from Blackfriars Bridge to the Mansion House, has a subway for the Metropolitan District Railway, besides others for the sewers, pipes, and wires. The Thames Northern Embankment has one subway for the railway just mentioned, another for the great low-level sewer, and another for gas- and water-pipes-all formed in the new ground obtained by reclaiming the muddy foreshore of the

Thames.

The above illustrative examples are furnished by the metropolis. Others of somewhat analogous character exist in some of the large towns in the north of England.

SUDOR ANGLICANUS; SWEATING SICKNESS [E. C. vol. vii. col. 949].

SUFFOCATION, DEATH BY, in Medical Jurisprudence, death brought about by exclusion of air from the lungs, otherwise than by hanging, strangulation, or drowning.

SUGAR CANDY [CANDY, E. C. vol. ii. col. 568.].

SUGAR MANUFACTURE AND TRADE. Since the publication of SUGAR Culture and MANUFACTURE [E. C. vol. vii. col. 883] many improvements have been made, both in the curing of sugar at or near the plantations, and in the English processes of refining.

In 1872, Messrs. Easton and Anderson fitted up, for the Khedive of Egypt, a sugar factory, which embodies most of the modern improvements. It is at Aba, about 120 miles south of Cairo. The building covers an area of 481 feet by 155; and is provided with water from the Canal of Egypt, stored in a tank of 14,000 gallons capacity, on a water-tower 42 feet high. All the apparatus is made conducive to the purpose of procuring a larger ratio of good sugar, and a smaller of poor molasses, from a given quantity of cane, and to effect it in a much shorter time, than under the old system. There are four cane-crushing mills, each consisting of three rollers, rotated by the power of a doublecylinder condensing steam-engine, heated by a Cornish boiler; these rollers, each 5 feet long by 4 feet diameter, squeeze out the juice from the cane by great pressure. The juice falls into a juice tank, provided with a double set of strainers; whence it is raised by a centrifugal pump into steam clarifiers. Sulphurous acid gas, manufactured in a separate apparatus, is admitted into the clarifiers; these are twelve in number, each of 450 gallons capacity, with copper bottoms and steam jackets,

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and heated by steam of 60 lb. pressure on the square inch. The juice is clarified in these vessels by the combined action of steamheat, sulphurous acid gas, and milk of lime; and then flows into subsiders, which are also twelve in number, each a cast-iron tank, with outlets for scum and sediment. These impurities, instead of being wasted, are collected in separate tanks, from which they flow into bags; hydraulic pressure then squeezes out nearly all the moisture from the contents of the bags, and renders it available for the production of good sugar. The clarified juice, freed from scum and sediment, flows into concentrating vessels, five in number; each of these is a large flat copper tray, 6 inches deep, heated by hot water from beneath. The steam that rises from the juice while evaporating is not lost it is stopped by a semicylindrical hood over each tray, and utilized. The juice, when evaporated to a certain degree, is pumped up into the vacuum-pans; there are five of these, each 10 feet diameter by 9 high; and the vacuum within them is produced by air-pumps 28 inches diameter. In these pans the juice becomes converted into granulated but clammy sugar, which flows out into cast-iron coolers. The produce of all the coolers, combined in mixing mills, passes to the crystallizers, and thence to the centrifugal machines, where nearly the whole of the moisture is driven away from the crystals. In the centrifugal machines the wet sugar is put into a series of baskets or perforated vessels, each 30 inches by 10; and the rapid whirling of these baskets expels the moisture. One of the important improvements in this series of processes is the use of sulphurous acid gas as a clarifying agent. The megass or spent cane is utilized as fuel for the boilers which supply steam to the clarifiers and centrifugal machines; while the waste steam from the evaporating-pans is rendered available for heating the pans and working the air-pumps.

M. M. Cail, of Paris, fitted up a fine plant of sugar machinery in Cuba in 1872, at a cost of 32,000l. The machinery will crush 100 tons of cane per day, produce 81b. of sugar from 100lb. of cane, and make 960 tons of sugar in an average season of 120 days-results much more favourable than could be obtained under the old system of working.

The co-operative system has lately been adopted, with advantage, on the sugar estates in the islands of St. Lucia and Martinique; the workers having a pecuniary interest in the quantity and quality of the work done. A system is also becoming established of separating the growing from the curing, the plantations from the sugar manufactories: on the ground that a good sugar-grower is not necessarily a good manufacturer, and virtually carries on two trades in which very different labourers and appliances are employed.

The manufacture of beet-root sugar is not yet conducted on an extensive scale in the United Kingdom; but on the continent of Europe it has become an important branch of industry. [BEET, E. C. vol. ii. col. 52; BEET PRODUCTS, E. C. S. col. 265.] The total product of beet-root sugar on the Continent in 1871 was estimated at 860,000 tons. Beet sugar, as well as cane sugar, can be converted into white crystals instead of granulated loaf, by modifications in some of the processes. The imports of sugar into the United Kingdom, in recent years, have been as follows:

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