occupy a lower grade. European cigars and cheroots made of European tobacco are mostly of inferior quality. Smoking or pipe tobacco, to be used in oriental hookahs, chibouques, and narghilès, is generally fine Turkish or Persian. India tobacco being generally poor in quality, the government of that country, through Dr. Forbes Watson, have lately offered prizes and other encouragements for improvements in cultivation. Most of the pipe-tobacco smoked in England comes from the United States of America; in which country the produce, in the eight years 1863-1870, amounted to 372 million lbs. of smoking leaf, and 4300 million cigars. The imports of leaf tobacco into the United Kingdom, in alternate recent years, were as follows :— density 0·998 at 25°, which boils at 198°, and does not solidify sodium: (CgHsBr +C,HạI + N = NaBr + NaI + CH) The tobacco crop is precarious; and it so happens that the years above given exhibit a continuous decline in the imports ; When pure, toluol boils at 111°, and has a density of 8841 at 1865 and 1871 were years of brisker trade. The home consump-0°; treated with bromine, it forms monobromotoluol, CH,BrMe, tion remains steady at about 42 to 43 million lbs. annually; the and benzylic bromide, CH,(CH,Br), the former existing in two variations in the imports being about equal to the variations in isomeric modifications, namely, a liquid, orthomonobromotoluol the quantities re-exported without paying duty. Besides the (1: 2), and a crystalline solid, paramonobromotoluol (1: 4), melting leaf tobacco, there is an importation of manufactured tobacco, at 28.5. By the action of chlorine on toluol corresponding cigars, and snuff to the quantity of about 3 million lbs. annu-chlorotoluols may be produced, and also numerous higher chlorially, of which about 1 million lbs. are for home-consumption, the nated compounds, dichlorotoluols, trichlorotoluols, &c. rest being re-exported. The import duty is heavy; it yielded 6,797,018. to the revenue in 1872. The commoner kinds of tobacco, forming the bulk of the pipe-tobacco smoked in this country, pay an import duty equal to nine times the market value of the leaf itself-a greater multiple than is maintained in any other English tax; the minimum duty is 3s. per lb., the maximum (for cigars) 58. TODDY [ARACK, E. C. vol. i. col. 473]. TOKAY WINE MANUFACTURE, E. C. vol. viii. col. 954]. TOLANE, CH (CH10), a hydro-carbon produced on heating toluylene bromide to 130 with alcoholic potash. It crystallizes in long colourless prisms, which melt at 60°, and are freely soluble in ether or hot alcohol. It combines directly with a molecule of bromine forming tolane dibromide, C4H9Br (CHoBr), a compound crystallizing in flat needles, which melt at 205°, and are only soluble with difficulty in alcohol or ether. (Limpricht and Schwanert, Ann. Chem. Pharm. cxlv. 330.) TOLUENE [TOLUOL, E. C. S.]. COHO 2 By the action of nitric acid on toluol, a liquid is obtained, from which two nitrotoluols may be separated by careful fractional distillation. One of these is a liquid, boiling at 222°, and the other a solid paranitrotoluol melting at 54°, and boiling at 238°. Dinitrotoluols and trinitroluols are also known. Toluol, treated with sulphuric acid, yields two isomeric toluolsulphonic acids, C,H,SO(HO,CH,S,Os), the salts of which are distinguished by the difference in their crystalline forms and in their solubility. When sodic toluolsulphate is treated with phosphoric pentachloride, it yields toluolsulphochloride, an isomeride of sulphobenzylic chloride, CH,SO,CI = SO(C2H2O)Сl (C1H,S204,C). The behaviour of these isomerides when treated with zinc and sulphuric acid is different, the latter yielding benzylic mercaptan [E. C. S., col. 280], the former orthotolylsulphydrate, C,H,SC,H,MeHS (CHS). This is a crystalline solid, melting at 42°5, whilst the isomeric metatolylsulphydrate, prepared from bromotoluol, is a liquid boiling at 188°. 28 12 = 12 6 HHO TOLUYLENE HYDRATE, C,,H,,O, = {C(CH) HHO TOLUIC ACID, C,H,O2 (HO,C16H703) [E. C., vol. viii. col. 280]. This rational formula includes the constitutional formula (C2H202,2HO), an aromatic diacid alcohol prepared by the of the toluic acids (CH) and of alphatoluic acid action of alcoholic potash on the toluylenic acetate obtained by COHO treating toluylene dibromide, CH12Bг2 (C2H12Br2) with (CH(CH) of the former, there are three isomeric modifi-argentic acetate. From its physical properties and chemical reactions, it would seem to be identical with hydrobenzoi fications, according as the methyl, CH, occupies the ortho (1:2) [E. C.S.col. 1305]. Desoxybenzoin [E.C.S. col. 740] is probably meta (13), or para (1:4), position. The ordinary toluic acid the corresponding ether. (Limpricht and Schwanert, Ann. melting at 176°, prepared by the action of oxidizing agents on Chem. Pharm. cxlv. 330.) coal-tar xylol, or on artificial methyltoluol (paraxylol), is paratoluic acid. Similarly, by the oxidation of orthoxylol, orthotoluic acid is produced this crystallizes in long, transparent, spicular crystals, melting at 102°. Lastly, metatoluic acid crystallizes in slender needles, melting at 90°, and is prepared by the action of sodium amalgam on bromometatoluic acid, CH-BгO2 (HO,C1HBrO3), one of the products of the oxidation of the monobromoxylol obtained from coal-tar xylol. Alphatoluic acid or phenyl-acetic acid is produced in various reactions, notably by the action of potassic hydrate on benzylic cyanide, and on heating mandelic acid [E. C. S. col. 1513] with strong hydriodic acid. The acid crystallizes in broad, thin, colourless, shining lammæ, very like benzoic acid. It melts at 76°5, and distils unaltered at 265°5. Most of the alphatoluates are soluble. Numerous bromine, chlorine, and iodine, and also nitro and amido derivatives of these acids have been obtained [XYLOL E. C. S.]. TOLUIDINE, C,H,N NH,(C,H2) (NH2(CH)). There are three modifications of this base known-meta, ortho, and para, corresponding to the three nitrotoluols. Ordinary crystallized toluidine [TOLUENIC GROUP, E. C., vol. viii. col. 279] is probably paratoluidine, and is obtained by the reduction of solid nitrotoluol. It melts at 45°, and distils unchanged at 200. Orthotoluidine, prepared from orthonitrotoluol, is a liquid of TOLUYLIC ALCOHOL, CH,,O = { Call Me (CH,O,H(), an alcohol isomeric with xylylic alcohol. It is obtained by the action of alcoholic potash on the toluic aldehyde, prepared by distilling a mixture of calcic toluate and formate. The alcohol is a white crystalline substance, melting at 59°, and boiling at 217. It is slightly soluble in water, freely in alcohol and ether. (Cannizzaro, Compt. Rend., liv. 1225.) TOLYL [DIBENZYL, E. C. S., col. 754]. NH2 TOLYLENE DIAMINE, C,H,,N,= (CH)" (N2H1(C1Ho)), NH a base resembling phenylene diamine, formed by the action of powerful reducing agents on dinitrotoluol. It crystallizes in colourless needles, which melt at 99°, and distil without decomposition at 280°. It is only sparingly soluble in water, but freely so in alcohol or ether (Hofmann, Proc. Roy. Soc. xi. 518). TOMATO SAUCE is made from the fruit of the Lycopersicum esculentum. [SOLANUM, E. C. Nat. Hist. Div. vol. iv. col. 847.] The plant is much cultivated in the south of Europe and the Southern States of America, and to some extent in this country, though the climate of England is somewhat too cold for it. The fruit is prepared into a great variety of sauces, ketchups, pickles, preserves, and confections; largely consumed on the Continent, and coming into increasing favour in England. TOMBAC, a mixed metal of 3 parts copper and 1 arsenic; it is sometimes called white copper, and forms a good material for polished white buttons and small trinkets. TONIC SOL-FA METHOD, the name given to a system of teaching music which has spread rapidly and widely in England during the last thirty years, chiefly through the efforts of Mr. John Curwen, of Plaistow, Essex. Mr. Curwen obtained his first notions of the system from the principles and practice of Miss Glover, of Norwich, who, about the year 1840, was very successful in teaching school-children in that city. With Miss Glover's consent, Mr. Curwen adopted her plans, and proceeded to modify and extend her system for popular use. MODULATOR. S DOHI f TE M f M LAH r SOH d d FAH ME The divisions of pulses are indicated upon the same plan. A full stop in the middle of a pulse divides it into halves (:d.d). A comma in the middle of each half divides them into quarters (:d, d. d,d). Inverted commas divide a pulse into thirds (:d,d ̧d). A note is continued through any of these subdivisions by a short horizontal line, except in the case of the commonly occurring division of a pulse into three quarters and one quarter, when the division marks, being placed close together, are understood to denote a continuance (:d.,d). In music consisting of several parts, these are placed in lines under each other, and bracketed together. With these explanations, the following example from Handel's 'Hallelujah Chorus' will be under Attempts to improve the notation of music have been made | stood :— from time to time for centuries past, and all of them in the direction of aiding the singer by rendering the key-relationship of tones more distinctly visible. This is the aim of the Tonic Sol-fa system. In it the ordinary staff of five lines, with its clefs, signatures, &c., is dispensed with, and the pupil learns all his early exercises from a chart called 'The Modulator.' This, by the help of the well-known Sol-fa syllables and their initials, represents the scale pictorially, with its true intervals. The related dominant and sub-dominant keys are given in side columns. It will be noticed that the sol-fa syllables are spelt in English fashion, and that si is altered to te, so that it may not be confused with sol, when the initials only are used. Soh, again, is preferred to sol, as a better sound for the voice to dwell upon. The dashes above and below the notes show the higher and lower octave-the middle octave being unmarked. The columns of the modulator represent the relationship of sounds, not their pitch. Doh may stand for C, E, A, C, &c. In the Tonic sol-fa system doh invariably is the keytone or Tonic (hence the name "Tonic Sol-fa"), according to the usage of Guido, and in opposition to the modern systems of Wilhem, Hullah, &c. When, during several lessons, the pupil has sung to the pointing of the teacher on the modulator, its picture of the scale becomes fixed in his "mind's eye," and he then passes on to the notation of actual music. This consists of the initials of the Sol-fa syllables written down in horizontal lines. The pupil reads these letters through his recollection of the modulator; upon this recollection the notation is founded. Time and rhythm are denoted in the Tonic Sol-fa notation by the punctuation marks used in ordinary printing, accompanied by this important provision, that in the same line of music every pulse (or beat) has an equal lateral space, however few or however many notes it contains. This assists the singer, by calling in the measuring power of the eye, and renders it hardly necessary for him, in simple music, to notice the time-marks. The following are blank measures : :m .rm :r.,d d er and ev :-.dd .td .d jd for ev .s:d'.t 1 :-.8 f :t, er and ev And he shall reign for ever and ev er. d er. ! ! · er. :f.s M :d er and ev - er. When, as is the case in all but the simplest music, the key changes during the progress of a piece, the sol-fa names change too, doh always representing the key-tone. A "bridge" is made from the old key to the new by a double note [d,"1), representing the same sound with its names in both keys. The following chant by Dupuis affords a simple example of change of key. The letters D.t" denote the new key entered upon, and the note (t) which distinguishes it from the old key. : Three-pulse measure. : : :: &c. | : : The above marks serve at once to denote time and accent. The perpendicular line or bar, as in the staff notation, marks the beginning of every measure. The medium accent, which occurs in the third beat of every measure of common time, and in the fourth-beat of six-eight time, is shown by a short line; the soft accent, which occurs in every other beat of two-four time, in the second and third beats of three-four or three-eight time, &c., is marked by a colon. A sol-fa initial placed after one of these accent marks is understood to denote a sound occupying the whole pulse or beat. If the note is continued, a horizontal line is placed in every pulse through which it is heard. silence is shown by nothing following the accent-mark. It is found unnecessary to mark the brief transitions which occur so frequently in cadences by bridge-tones and a shifting of the syllables. Instead of this, fe is used to denote the sharp of fah, and ta to denote the flat of te. Thus the melody of Dupuis' chant, written on this plan, would be— Chromatic tones, which do not change the key, are on the to be sharpened, and into "a" (pronounced "aw"), when it is same plan, expressed by changing the vowel into "e" when it is to be flattened. Thus d de, le, and t ta, m ma, &c. minor is not regarded in the Tonic Sol-fa method as a different scale, but merely as a "mode" of the major, in which lah instead of doh is the key-tone. Thus A minor would be called “key C, the sharp seventh, se. lah mode." The sharp sixth of the minor scale is called bah; The method of teaching associated with the Tonic Sol-fa notation is very carefully graduated. The pupil is first taught the notes of the tonic chord, then those of the dominant chord, then those of the subdominant chord-thus completing the scale. The teacher studiously avoids either singing with his pupils or employing an instrument to lead them. He teaches them by singing while they listen. This creates in them independent power. Exercises in writing down the names of tones heard are used from the first, in order to train the ear. A set of time names, or language of rhythm (borrowed from the French), serves to simplify the learning of Time by separating it from Tune. The pupils are taught to discover in each of the seven tones of the scale a characteristic effect. Thus doh is called "firm," lah "sorrowful," &c. This is reckoned most valuable in helping the ear to produce the sounds with true intonation. A set of Hand-signs is used for these tones, which further exemplifies their mental effect. The Tonic Sol-fa College, which is merely an examining body, having its offices at Plaistow, grants sixteen certificates, five in vocal practice and notation, three in Theory, one for the teacher, four for various classes of instruments, the others in harmony-analysis, composition, and the staff notation. Of the principal certificate 86,000 have been granted. Upon the foundations laid by Miss Glover, Mr. Curwen has in recent years built up a system of harmony which has been used with marked success by a large band of students in all parts of the kingdom, who, by means of "correspondence classes," send up their exercises for correction. The Tonic Sol-fa movement was first brought prominently. before the public by the children's festivals at the Crystal Palace, the first of which was held in 1857. In 1867 the Tonic Sol-fa Association Choir, under Mr. Proudman, attended the International Choral Competition at Paris, and obtained a prize. The students of the method have been successful in examinations conducted in the old notation. Thus in the last six years they have obtained two-thirds of the certificates in Musical Theory, granted by Mr. Hullah at the Society of Arts. In 1869 the Committee of Council on Education recognized the Tonic Sol-fa system on equal terms with the old. In 1872 the London School Board adopted the system, and their example has been widely followed by provincial boards. Tonic Sol-fa choirs have won several prizes at the national music meetings at the Crystal Palace. It is estimated that 315,000 pupils pass through Tonic Sol-fa classes each year. The system has been carried by missionaries and emigrants to all parts of the globe. Tunes have been printed in Chinese, Singalese, Arabic, Spanish, Malagash, &c. The promoters of the method have not as yet urged its use for instrumental purposes. But an increasing number of players on the organ, harmonium, and pianoforte, prefer the Tonic Sol-fa notation. It has been also successfully applied to stringed, reed, and brass instruments, both by solitary players and in bands. It is found that Tonic Sol-fa pupils very readily learn the old notation, and are always ambitious to do so. Thus, instead of being antagonistic, it is proving a means of introducing large numbers to the established notation, and bids fair to work concurrently with it. For a further account of the Tonic Sol-fa method, see Curwen's Standard Course of Lessons and How to Observe Harmony, small works published at the depôt, 8, Warwicklane, London, E. C. TONICITY, in Physiology, a term applied to that continuous state of muscular contraction by which such parts as the face are kept symmetrical and free from distortion, and other parts are maintained in an open or closed state according to the function they have to discharge. a consequence, rendered unsafe in rough weather. This system, Consequent on the opening of the Suez Canal, the French government consented, June, 1873, to adopt the English tonnage code (which is adopted by most continental nations), as more accurately representing the real cargo space of a ship. TOOLS. The hand-tools or implements used by artisans in the various mechanical trades are for the most part simple in character. They comprise hammers, files, rasps, vices, planes, saws, chisels, gouges, awls, gimlets, screw-drivers, squares, bevels, plummets, punches, rimers, dividers, compasses, callipers, pincers, nippers, pliers, scrapers, burnishers, gauges, chamfering tools, deepening and hollowing tools, tweezers, screw-keys, brushes, buff-sticks, shears, scissors, drawplates, rules and rulers, spokeshaves, braces, bits, augers, axes, adzes, hatchets, cleavers, mallets, knives, pricking irons, creasing irons, needles, bodkins, thimbles, irons, drills and drill-stocks, measures, modelling tools, trowels, pinking irons and punches, crowbars, knitting pins, netting needles, scribers, pestles, mortars, tinmen's tools, braziers' and plumbers' tools, blasting tools, quarrying tools, &c. Some of these are described under appropriate headings in E. C. or E. C. S., others are too simple to require description. What are called machine tools, in which steam-power is brought to bear upon tools or working apparatus of large size and almost mathematically accurate working, are described under such headings as BORING, PLANING, SCREW CUTTING, LATHE TURNING, STEAM HAMMERS, &c. They are among the triumphs of recent mechanical invention, due to the skill of Whitworth, Fairbairn, Armstrong, Nasmyth, and other mechanical engineers; and furnish the means whereby machines generally can be finished with a truth and regularity unattainable by hand. TOREUTIC (TOрEUTIK), the ancient Greek term for the finer artistic work in metal. [CÆLATURA, E. C. S. col. 404.] TORPEDO, an explosive intended to act under water against the bottom of a ship. At the siege of Antwerp, 1585, the Dutch TONNAGE, of a ship, is a mode of estimating the interior employed explosion vessels which burst when they approached an capacity. A ship being bounded on all sides by curved surfaces, enemy's ship; each vessel had clockwork which set a matchlock of varying character, the enclosed space can only be accurately in action; and the destructive effect depended on the accurate measured with difficulty and trouble. Hence a sort of rough timing of the mechanism. They were so far successful that general rule is practically adopted. It is assumed that a space of 40 eight hunded Spaniards lost their lives thereby. The English cubic feet shall constitute a ton (40 cubic feet of water exceeds by employed floating petards at the siege of Rochelle, in 1628, but only a little 1 ton in weight); and the tonnage of a ship is considered without much effect. For nearly two centuries, although many to be the multiple of this ton which most nearly corresponds with torpedoes or marine explosives were invented, none attracted the internal capacity of the ship. An old rule was to multiply much notice. In 1804, a Catamaran Expedition' was sent the length by the breadth of the ship, assume that the depth was against Napoleon's Boulogne flotilla, intended for the invasion equal to the breadth, multiply by this breadth and divide by 94. of England. The catamaran, invented by Fulton, the American, The quotient gave the number of tons "burthen" belonging to the was a coffer, or oblong box, about 21 feet long by 31 broad, ship, which burthen became a standard for determining harbour-made of thick plank, lined with lead, caulked and tarred in the dues, light-dues, and many other of the imposts laid upon ship-seams, covered with canvas, and coated with hot pitch; it conping. The system was an absurd one, because it assumed that tained 40 barrels of powder, other inflammable matter, a piece every ship is just as deep as it is broad; and it proved to be mis- of clockwork, and enough ballast to keep the upper surface chievous, because it tempted shipowners to build their vessels about on a level with the water. The catamaran was towed very narrow and very deep, in order to lessen as much as possible near the enemy, and then left to the action of the tide to be the dues for a ship of given cargo-capacity, and the ships were, as drifted foul of the enemy's vessels, to which it was to cling by means of grappling irons, floated with pieces of cork. The clockwork was so adjusted, that in five or ten minutes after the catamaran was launched, a mainspring drew the trigger of a lock and fired off the powder. There were too many chances of failure here, and little mischief was done. Lord Cochrane in 1809, and the Chinese in 1856, employed contrivances which, like the above and like fireships [FIRE SHIPS, E.C. vol. iv. col. 92], floated on the surface of the water. The principle of the torpedo, as now understood, is the exploding of the mass when in or under the water. David Bushnell, an ingenious American, invented contrivances which were used during the War of Independence, to shatter or injure English ships by means of submerged boats, carcasses, and kegs of gunpowder: they wrought little damage, but suggested ideas to later inventors. Bushnell and Fulton both invented boats that could be propelled some distance under water, and used to attach torpedoes or explosive bodies to the bottom of an enemy's ship. Such contrivances were not in favour with the English admirals of George the Third's reign; Earl St. Vincent denounced any attempts to "encourage a mode of war which those who | command the sea do not want, and which, if successful, would deprive them of it." A notion that torpedo warfare would be peculiarly barbarous and brutal tended to increase the dislike of such novelties in England. Hence a more tardy attention to this subject than in foreign countries. Several years after Fulton's death, Colonel Colt took up the inquiry, and made many experiments on the application of electricity to the firing of submarine explosives; he produced some striking results between 1829 and 1843, but his plans were not systematically adopted by any government. The Russian war may be said to have commenced a new era in this matter. The Russians exploded many submerged torpedoes in the Baltic to injure the English and French ships. They were conical vessels containing an explosive composition, which was ignited by a chemical action of sulphuric acid on chlorate of potash; but as the commencement of this action depended on concussion against the ship to be struck, the effect was uncertain, and productive of but little damage. Submarine mines, charged with gun-cotton, and ignited by electricity, were used by the Austrians during the Austro-Italian war of 1859. During the American civil war, 1861 to 1865, no less than thirtyeight vessels were destroyed by torpedoes, mostly Federal ships attacked by Confederates; but in twelve of these instances the torpedo destroyed the vessel to which it belonged. One ship, the Commodore Jones, was blown to pieces by a charge of 1750 lbs. of powder, placed in the bed of James River, and fired by electric wires managed on shore. The torpedoes used by the Confederates were either buoyant or framed; the buoyant were moored to a depth of about 10 feet below the surface of the water; the others were attached to a framework in shallow waters. The shapes differed greatly, and the charge varied from 27 lb. to 150 lb. Some had mechanical fuses, some chemical, and the rest electrical. The outrigger torpedo was a cigar-shaped steamer, all but a small portion submerged; a spar 10 feet long extended laterally, with a 60-lb. charge suspended from the end, to be ignited by a chemical fuse. One invention, used in 1864, was a submarine boat, which could be lowered to any depth, propelled four knots an hour by hand paddles, and supply fresh air to a crew of nine men for half an hour; she dragged a floating torpedo until it came under the keel of an enemy's ship, where it was made to explode. It was used effectually once, and destroyed the Federal sloop Housatonic; but neither the submarine boat nor its crew was ever seen again. The Federals armed a number of steam launches with outriggers, having trigger lines to ignite torpedoes suspended from the outer ends; but the danger inflicted on the enemy was not considerable. The chief result was moral rather than material, in both navies; officers and men were bewildered by the sudden and insidious approach of the torpedoes, which often set at naught the calculations of combatants otherwise cool and determined. This moral effect was similarly produced in the Baltic, and off the mouths of the Elbe and the Weser, in 1870-71; the Prussian torpedoes, submerged in great abundance, succeeded in keeping off the French fleet. Outrigger torpedoes attached to small steam launches have been experimentally tried in many different forms; the outrigger being in some instances 25 feet long, and immersed 10 feet under water; the trigger line, electric wire, or fuse, runs along the outrigger; and the torpedo itself is shaped and charged in diverse ways. The German government has constructed special torpedo vessels, instead of attaching torpedo outriggers to ordinary steam launches; and these are undergoing trial and scrutiny. Captain Harvey's torpedo, now engaging much attention, is a sort of oblong box, to be towed by a long rope. It is charged with gunpowder, gun-cotton, lithofracteur, or dynamite; and the charge is ignited by causing projecting levers to come in contact with an enemy's vessel, the levers forcing down a bolt which explodes a detonating compound contained in a tube. The torpedo is supported on a buoy; and, for the production of the due effect, great celerity is required in the steam vessel which tows it, in order that the levers may strike forcibly against an enemy's ship. The Whitehead or Fish torpedo, also being experimented on by the Admiralty, differs from Captain Harvey's in being a sort of projectile. It is a sheet-iron submarine rocket, about 14 feet long; the forepart contains gun-cotton or dynamite; the other part contains a pneumatic arrangement for compressing air, a four-bladed screw, and rudders. It is discharged from a tube in the bows of a steamer; an apparatus called the ejector drives it out, and at the same time sets the mechanism in action. The torpedo travels onward by its pneumatic force, and explodes when the fore-end strikes an enemy's ship. The operators in the steamer take aim, before they discharge this singular rocket, which can travel 1000 yards at a speed of seven knots an hour. If the steamer or the enemy is moving, still more if both are moving, this accuracy of aim would be a difficulty. Captain Ericsson's torpedo, much examined and criticised in America in 1872, is to be immersed 15 or 20 feet below water, and will carry a charge of 400 lbs. of nitroglycerine right under the bottom of an enemy's ship. It is moved by atmospheric air under moderate pressure. The operator is in a vessel which tows the torpedo; a tubular cable half a mile long connects them; compressed air is driven through this cable; and the movements of the torpedo are thus governed from the vessel. The torpedo, made of light galvanised iron, is 10 feet long by 19 inches diameter, and has propellers which can be acted on by the compressed air conveyed by the cable. The cable can be wound or unwound on board the vessel, so as to retain the torpedo at any distance not exceeding half a mile; the steam power of the vessel gives a speed of 10 knots an hour, in approaching an enemy's ship; while the firing of the torpedo can be delayed until the proper inoment seems to the commander to have arrived. The American government are also testing a new torpedo boat, 25 feet long by 3 feet diameter, to be exploded by a galvanic battery on shore. It has a moving power, depending on a carbonic acid gas engine, the chemistry of which is set to work by a current through a wire; it is complex in its mechanism for starting, steering, and stopping; and the exploding at the exact time and spot is dependent on many conditions. It will thus be seen that torpedoes vary greatly in their character. Gunpowder, gun-cotton, dynamite, and nitroglycerine as the explosive material; mechanical concussion, chemical action, time fuse, and electric current, as the means of ignition; a floating power in the torpedo itself, or a dependence on the power of a boat or some other vessel; a connection with this boat or vessel by means of an outrigger, or by a towing cable; a mode of control by compressed air through the hollow of this cable, or by a current through a wire; the self-destruction of a costly apparatus, or only of a sheet-iron vessel filled with combustibles, when the torpedo is fired; the power of acting in any sea or ocean, or only within visible distance from the shore; the power of the enemy to see the torpedo on or near the surface of the water, or the total immersion at a depth of several feet-these diversities show that the whole subject is in an experimental stage. The next great naval war will probably solve many of the problems connected with it. Classes have been established by the Government at Portsmouth for the instruction of different grades of naval and marine artillery officers in the use of torpedoes. Besides published descriptions of particular torpedoes, the general subject is treated with much fulness in Von Schelika's Treatise on Coast Defence; Commander Barnes's Submarine Warfare; Commander Dawson's Offensive Torpedo Warfare; Major Stothard's Defensive Submarine Warfare; and Captain Harding Steward's Submarine Mines. TORQUE or TORC, from the Latin torqueo, to twist, whence torquis, a kind of collar or circlet made of bronze, silver, solid gold, or thick gold wires twisted together and worn as an ornament round the neck, originally by the Persians and other Asiatic nations, and afterwards by the Romans, Gauls, Germans, 2095 TORTICOLLIS. TOY MANUFACTURE. 2096 Celts, and Britons. A torquis when twisted spirally into several in separate articles [CAMPANILE, E. C. vol. ii. col. 537; ROUND continuous coils became an armlet (torquis brachialis or armilla), | TOWERS, E. C. vol. vii. col. 197]. The most important tower and in both forms these ornaments were often bestowed among of recent erection, the largest and loftiest square tower in the Romans as prizes for valour displayed on the field of battle. the world, is the Victoria Tower of the Palace of Westminster, They vary considerably in size and weight. Many examples designed by Sir Charles Barry, an elaborate specimen of Third of them discovered in various countries may be seen in the Pointed palatial architecture, 75 feet square and 336 feet high British Museum, some being remarkably fine specimens, more to the top of the pinnacles: the tower of Mechlin cathedral is especially a bronze one of late Celtic work in the collection of loftier (348 feet to the top of the parapet), but it is unfinished. British Antiquities, and two gold ones from Capua in the newly TOXICOLOGY (probably derived from Togov, used in the acquired Castellani collection. sense of an arrow, as a carrier of poison, and Aóyos, a description). That branch of medical science which treats of poisons, their classification, description, effects, antidotes, &c. TORSE [WREATH, E. C. S.]. TORTICOLLIS; WRY-NECK, a contraction of the muscles of one side of the neck, due to rheumatism or neuralgia. TOTEMISM, nature worship, that stage succeeding Fetichism [FETICH, E. C. S. col. 985], in the religious progress of savage races in which, without abandoning their belief in Fetiches, they add to it the worship of the sun, moon, or stars, mountains, rivers, trees, stones, animals, or other natural objects. (Tylor, Primitive Culture, ii. 213-4; Lubbock, Origin of Civilisation, 119, 169.) TOUCH-PAPER AND TOUCH-WOOD. Touch-paper, formed of paper saturated with nitre, is a kind of tinder much used in fire-works. Some of the German fusees for smokers are a kind of touch-paper. Decayed willow and many other kinds of decayed trees form touch-wood, and serve as tinder. TOUCH-STONE, a smooth black piece of basalt or of bituminous quartz, employed in assaying and goldsmiths' work, to ascertain approximately the quality of the metals. Small bars or needles are formed, one consisting of pure gold, one of 23 gold and 1 copper, one of 22 gold and 2 copper, and so on, down to any degree of poorness in the gold used for cheap jewellery. When the needles are rubbed on the touch-stone, they leave coloured streaks, light red or deep red according to the fineness or coarseness of the gold. When the gold to be tested is rubbed in a similar way, its streak is compared to those of two or more of the needles, and its quality is assumed to be similar to that of the needle which yields a similar streak. The scientific process of assaying determines the quality of an alloy much more accurately; but as a few grains are required to be scraped off for this purpose, and as such scraping would be detrimental to articles of delicate goldsmiths' or jewellers' work, the method by touch-stone is often adopted instead. The streak itself may be chemically analysed by means of nitric acid, which dissolves the copper and leaves the gold undissolved. TOUS LES MOIS; ST. KITT'S ARROWROOT, the fecula or starch of the Canna coccinea, which flowers every month, whence the name. TOW, the short and inferior fibres of flax, separated from the rest by carding. [LINEN MANUFACTURE, É. C. vol. v. col. 293.] TOWER (A. S. tor or torr: German, thurm: Italian, torre: French, tour), a lofty building, usually of several storeys, narrow as compared with its height, and ordinarily attached to and forming part of a castle, palace, church, or other large edifice, above the main part of which it is considerably elevated. From the earliest period of history towers were built for military purposes; and both among the Greeks and Romans they were constructed as strong isolated keeps, or strongholds and places of ultimate retreat, and also attached to castles and to the walls and gates of fortified towns. Detached towers were also employed as lighthouses; of these the Pharos of Alexandria was the most famous; a good example is still extant at Dover. But it was in the middle ages that towers most occupied the attention of both ecclesiastical and military architects. Towers of the latter class will be found sufficiently illustrated under CASTLE, E. C. vol. ii. col. 647, and BARBACAN, E. C. vol. i. col. 436. Church Towers are described under CHURCH, E. C. vol. ii. col. 898; NORMAN ARCHCTECTURE, E. C. vol. v. cols. 965 and 971; and GOTHIC ARCHITECTURE, E. C. vol. iv. col. 436. As distinctive examples of English church towers of the several periods of Medieval architecture may be cited-Norman, the central tower of Norwich cathedral, that of St. Alban's abbey church, and the transept towers of Exeter cathedral; First Pointed, the central tower of Salisbury cathedral, an admirable work; Second Pointed, Lincoln cathedral; Third Pointed, Canterbury cathedral, Gloucester cathedral, Magdalen college, Oxford, and many others, the towers of this period being very elegant and characteristic structures. The heights of the most celebrated church towers are given in the "Table of Spires, English and foreign," SPIRES, E. C. vol. vii. col. 725. The most distinctive classes of detached or isolated towers are described TOY MANUFACTURE. Dr. Faraday once remarked that "boys' toys are the most philosophical things in the world." He had in mind the large amount of scientific truth illustrated by the action of peg-tops and humming-tops, tee-totums, popguns, pea-shooters, cups and balls, suckers, slings, hoops, &c. Toys also illustrate, to some degree, national characteristics : such as the toy-ships of England, the toy soldiers of Germany, and the toy millinery of Paris. The manufacture of children's toys forms a considerable item in the trading industry of Europe. The United Kingdom alone imports foreign toys to the value of 200,000l. annually, besides supporting an extensive home manufacture. The doll is perhaps the most universal of all toys, the most varied in the materials of which it is made, and the most diverse in the prices charged-from one farthing to several guineas, English dolls, especially those made of wax, equal in skilful workmanship those made in any other country; but the cheaper dolls we import; while the French take the lead in the dressing of dolls. Many of the dolls are made of sheepskin stuffed with sawdust; except the hands, in which iron or steel fittings are inserted, to facilitate the moving of the fingers. The leather is cut out by stamps fixed in handles, then sewn into form by skilful needlewomen, and stuffed with sawdust. Dolls' heads and busts are often made of porcelain; the cheaper kinds all in one piece, with painted eyes; the better varieties in two pieces, that the head may move round a little on a sort of joint, and with glass eyes inserted in sockets. The manufacture of these eyes constitutes a curious branch of glass-bead making; and the market has to be carefully studied by the makers, black eyes being most in favour in some countries, blue in others, hazel in others; while even in the same country, fashion in this matter changes from time to time. The same remark applies to | hair; the hair-workers in the doll trade find that the market is sensibly affected by the prevailing fashion among ladies; at present, a golden-haired doll will sell much more readily than one with black or brown hair. In most dolls the hair (often mohair) is made into a kind of wig, and then put on; but in the better specimens of wax doll, the hairs are inserted one by one in the head. Various kinds of composition are used for dolls, moulded something in the same way as wax and porcelain. The rag-doll, when well made, is an ingenious production, requiring much care to maintain the proper shape. The wooden doll, the most durable of all, calls for an exercise of skill in woodwork and carving which is more developed in Germany and the Tyrol than in France and England. Many of the so-called Dutch dolls are made in the Thuringian Forest, and are brought down the Rhine to Rotterdam for export. The Parisian doll dressers change their fashions every month. There is a commercial reason for this, apart from making the dolls attractive: seeing that the dolls are sent to various parts of the world, dressed as types or models of the prevailing fashions. Crying dolls, 'papa' and 'mamma' dolls, walking dolls, gutta-percha dolls with articulated joints-are other varieties, in which much technical ingenuity is displayed. Another noteworthy type or class of toy is the Noah's Ark, the boxful of carved animals, saleable at prices varying from one penny to ten shillings. The skill of the Germans and Tyrolese is conspicuously shown in this kind of work. In the valley of Grödnerthal, in the Tyrol, where almost every cottage is a carver's workshop, Noah's Ark animals are made in large quantities, of a species of soft pine known by the name of ziebelnusskiefer. One mode of making them is novel and striking. The wood is cut into slabs, say fifteen inches in diameter by three inches thick, the grain running in the direction of the thickness. A circular piece, six inches diameter, is cut out of the centre, leaving a ring four or five inches broad. This ring is turned in a lathe, with chisels and gouges, over every part of the surface, on both sides and on the inner and outer edges. The curvatures, ridges, hollows, swellings, &c., are remarkable, but |