Opinion of the Court. Mack v. Parks, 8 Gray, 517; Maxham v. Day, 16 Gray, 213. The inviolability of the person is as much invaded by a compulsory stripping and exposure as by a blow. To compel any one, and especially a woman, to lay bare the body, or to submit it to the touch of a stranger, without lawful authority, is an indignity, an assault and a trespass; and no order or process, commanding such an exposure or submission, was ever known to the common law in the administration of justice between individuals, except in a very small number of cases, based upon special reasons, and upon ancient practice, coming down from ruder ages, now mostly obsolete in England, and never, so far as we are aware, introduced into this country. In former times, the English courts of common law might, if they saw fit, try by inspection or examination, without the aid of a jury, the question of the infancy, or of the identity of a party; or, on an appeal of maihem, the issue of maihem or no maihem; and, in an action of trespass for maihem, or for an atrocious battery, might, after a verdict for the plaintiff, and on his motion, and upon their own inspection of the wound, super visum vulneris, increase the damages at their discretion. In each of those exceptional cases, as Blackstone tells us, "it is not thought necessary to summon a jury to decide it," because "the fact, from its nature, must be evident to the court, either from ocular demonstration or other irrefragable proof," and, therefore, "the law departs from its usual resort, the verdict of twelve men, and relies on the judgment of the court alone." The inspection was not had for the purpose of submitting the result to the jury, but the question was thought too easy of decision to need submission to a jury at all. 3 Bl. Com. 331-333. The authority of courts of divorce, in determining a question of impotence as affecting the validity of a marriage, to order an inspection by surgeons of the person of either party, rests upon the interest which the public, as well as the parties, have in the question of upholding or dissolving the marriage state, and upon the necessity of such evidence to enable the court to Opinion of the Court. exercise its jurisdiction; and is derived from the civil and canon law, as administered in spiritual and ecclesiastical courts, not proceeding in any respect according to the course of the common law. Briggs v. Morgan, 2 Hagg. Con. 324; S. C. 3 Phillimore, 325; Devanbagh v. Devanbagh, 5 Paige, 554; Le Barron v. Le Barron, 35 Vermont, 365. The writ de ventre inspiciendo, to ascertain whether a woman convicted of a capital crime was quick with child, was allowed by the common law, in order to guard against the taking of the life of an unborn child for the crime of the mother. The only purpose, we believe, for which the like writ was allowed by the common law, in a matter of civil right, was to protect the rightful succession to the property of a deceased person against fraudulent claims of bastards, when a widow was suspected to feign herself with child in order to produce a supposititious heir to the estate, in which case the heir or devisee might have this writ to examine whether she was with child or not, and, if she was, to keep her under proper restraint till delivered. 1 Bl. Com. 456; Bac. Ab. Bastard, A. In cases of that class, the writ has been issued in England in quite recent times. In re Blakemore, 14 Law Journal (N. S.) Ch. 336. But the learning and research of the counsel for the plaintiff in error have failed to produce an instance of its ever having been considered, in any part of the United States, as suited to the habits and condition of the people. So far as the books within our reach show, no order to inspect the body of a party in a personal action appears to have been made, or even moved for, in any of the English courts of common law, at any period of their history. The most analogous cases in England, that have come under our notice, are two in the Common Bench, in each of which an order for the inspection of a building was asked for in an action for work and labor done thereon, and was refused for want of power in the court to make or enforce it. In one of them, decided in 1838, counsel moved for an order that the plaintiff and his witnesses have a view of the building and an inspection of the work done thereon; and stated that Opinion of the Court. the object of the motion was to prevent great expense, to obviate the necessity of calling a host of surveyors, and to avoid being considered trespassers. Thereupon one of the judges said: "Then you are asking the court to make an order for you to commit a trespass;" and Chief Justice Tindal said: "Suppose the defendants keep the door shut; you will come to us to grant an attachment; could we grant it in such a case? You had better see if you can find any authority to support you, and mention it to the court again.” On a subsequent day, the counsel stated that he had not been able to find any case in point; and therefore took nothing by his motion. Newham v. Tate, 1 Arnold, 244; S. C. 6 Scott, 574. In the other case, in 1840, the court discharged a similar order, saying: "The order, if valid, might, upon disobedience to it, be enforced by attachment. Then, it is evidently one which a judge has no power to make. If the party should refuse so reasonable a thing as an inspection, it may be a matter of argument before the jury, but the court has no power to enforce it." Turquand v. Strand Union, 8 Dowling, 201; S. C. 4 Jurist, 74. In the English Common Law Procedure Act of 1854, enlarging the powers which the courts had before, and authorizing them, on the application of either party, to make an order "for the inspection by the jury, or by himself, or by his witnesses, of any real or personal property, the inspection of which may be material to the proper determination of the question in dispute," the omission to mention inspection of the person is significant evidence that no such inspection, without consent, was allowed by the law of England. Taylor on Ev. (6th ed.) $ 502-504. Even orders for the inspection of documents could not be made by a court of common law, until expressly authorized by statute, except when the document was counted or pleaded on, or might be considered as held in trust for the moving party. Taylor on Ev. §§ 1588-1595; 1 Greenleaf on Ev. $559. In the case at bar, it was argued that the plaintiff in an action for personal injury may be permitted by the court, as Opinion of the Court. in Mulhado v. Brooklyn Railroad, 30 N. Y. 370, to exhibit his wounds to the jury in order to show their nature or extent, and to enable a surgeon to testify on that subject; and therefore may be required by the court to do the same thing, for the same purpose, upon the motion of the defendant. But the answer to this is, that any one may expose his body, if he chooses, with a due regard to decency, and with the permission of the court; but that he cannot be compelled to do so, in a civil action, without his consent. If he unreasonably refuses to show his injuries, when asked to do so, that fact may be considered by the jury, as bearing on his good faith, as in any other case of a party declining to produce the best evidence in his power. Clifton v. United States, 4 How. 242; Bryant v. Stilwell, 24 Penn. St. 314; Turquand v. Strand Union, above cited. In this country, the earliest instance of an order for the inspection of the body of the plaintiff in an action for a personal injury appears to have been in 1868 by a judge of the Superior Court of the city of New York in Walsh v. Sayre, 52 How. Pract. 334, since overruled by decisions in general term in the same State. Roberts v. Ogdensburgh & Lake Champlain Railroad, 29 Hun, 154; Neuman v. Third Avenue Railroad, 18 Jones & Spencer, 412; McSwyny v. Broadway Railroad, 27 N. Y. State Reporter, 363. And the power to make such an order was peremptorily denied in 1873 by the Supreme Court of Missouri, and in 1882 by the Supreme Court of Illinois. Loyd v. Hannibal & St. Joseph Railroad, 53 Missouri, 509; Parker v. Enslow, 102 Illinois, 272. Within the last fifteen years, indeed, as appears by the cases cited in the brief of the plaintiff in error,1 a practice to grant 1 Schroeder v. Chicago &c. Railway, 47 Iowa, 375; Miami &c. Turnpike Co. v. Baily, 37 Ohio St. 104; Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fé Railroad v. Thul, 29 Kansas, 466; White v. Milwaukee Railway, 61 Wisconsin, 536; Hatfield v. St. Paul & Duluth Railroad, 33 Minnesota, 130; Stuart v. Havens, 17 Nebraska, 211; Owens v. Kansas City &c. Railroad, 95 Missouri, 169; Sibley v. Smith, 46 Arkansas, 275; Missouri Pacific Railroad v. Johnson, 72 Texas, 95; Richmond & Danville Railroad v. Childress, 82 Georgia, 719; Alabama &c. Railroad v. Hill, 90 Alabama, 71. Opinion of the Court. such orders has prevailed in the courts of several of the Western and Southern States, following the lead of the Supreme Court of Iowa in a case decided in 1877. The consideration due to the decisions of those courts has induced us fully to examine, as we have done above, the precedents and analogies on which they rely. Upon mature advisement, we retain our original opinion that such an order has no warrant of law. In the State of Indiana, the question appears not to be settled. The opinions of its highest court are conflicting and indecisive. Kern v. Bridwell, 119 Indiana, 226, 229; Hess v. Lowrey, 122 Indiana, 225, 233; Terre Haute & Indianapolis Railroad v. Brunker, 26 Northeastern Reporter, 178. And the only statute, which could be supposed to bear upon the question, simply authorizes the court to order a view of real or personal property which is the subject of litigation, or of the place in which any material fact occurred. Indiana Rev. Stat. 1881, c. 2, § 538. But this is not a question which is governed by the law or practice of the State in which the trial is had. It depends upon the power of the national courts under the Constitution and laws of the United States. The Constitution, in the Seventh Amendment, declares that in all suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, trial by jury shall be preserved. Congress has enacted that "the mode of proof in the trial of actions at common law shall be by oral testimony and examination of witnesses in open court, except as hereinafter provided,” and has then made special provisions for taking depositions. Rev. Stat. §§ 861, 863 & seq. The only power of discovery or inspection, conferred by Congress, is to "require the parties to produce books or writings in their possession or power, which contain evidence pertinent to the issue, in cases and under circumstances where they might be compelled to produce the same by the ordinary rules of proceeding in chancery," and to nonsuit or default a party failing to comply with such an order. Rev. Stat. § 724. And the provision of § 914, by which the practice, pleadings and forms and modes of proceeding in the courts of each State are to be followed in |