to all boys, rather than to a limited group only, the best features of the cadet work, without incorporating anything which might bring criticism from those opposed

J

UNIOR HIGH SCHOOLS were begun as an experiment in Washington in the fall of 1919. Two former highschool buildings, one for white pupils and one for colored pupils, were used. Attendance was voluntary and pupils were drawn from all parts of the District of Columbia and its suburbs. For four years the work of these two schools, known as the Columbia and the Shaw, was used in developing courses of study, a method of administration, and a system of teacher qualification which, after consideration by committees representing the school system in general, became with some revision the basis for further development of the junior high-school system.

Other committees discussed building plans, and a tentative standard type of building was adopted for the two new junior high schools, the Langley and the Macfarland, which were opened in the fall of 1923, and for the Francis and the Stuart Junior High School, now under construction. In addition to these new buildings, four old buildings, one a former high-school building, have been utilized for junior high schools.

High Qualifications Required of Teachers

Teachers are certified to the junior high schools from a rated list. This list consists (1) of elementary-school teachers of approved record in the Washington schools who have submitted evidence of the completion of courses in subject matter as well as junior high-school methods in approved institutions, and (2) of other teachers who have qualified by examination.

The present total of six junior high schools for white pupils and two for colored pupils is being increased as rapidly as the resources of the Board of Education will permit, so that the school system of the District of Columbia may be reorganized completely on the sixthree-three plan with each junior high school serving a definite region.

The school day is divided into seven periods of 43 minutes each. The grades included are the seventh, eighth, and ninth grades. The seventh grade is used as an integrating year gradually to accustom the pupils to the departmental plan, to the larger freedom and to all the varied social life of the junior high

school.

A pupil in the seventh grade has during any one week only three teachers, exclusive of his teachers of music and physical training. The eighth grade is the exploratory year-exploratory in the sense that the pupil has the choice of the following electives: Latin, French, Spanish, elementary business, or practical arts. At stated times during the eighth year the pupil may change his elective without loss of credit if he finds that he has made the wrong choice. The ninth grade has full departmentalization of its work, and academic, technical, and business curricula are offered to integrate with the second year of the senior high.

In 1925 a composite course in physical and military training was adopted for ninth-grade boys. Two periods per week are given to the customary physical education work by classes, and the third to a mass formation of military character.

Under the present system, squad, platoon, and company leaders are all developed from the ninth-grade boys. Emphasis is placed upon the development of posture, alertness, control, resourcefulness, prompt response to command, judicious use of authority, and acceptance of responsibility. Much thought has been

In order to put in practice the theory that "every junior high school should make adequate provision for collateral activities in the field of art, music, oratory, dramatic art, social and physical recreation, and community service," the organization of clubs in these fields of activity is encouraged under the guidance of a faculty adviser. One period per week at a regular time within the school day is set aside for the work of the clubs. The majority of the schools attempt to make participation in these clubs general, for they feel that the clubs supplement as well as motivate the curriculum. They promote group loyalty and provide for many children the opportunity to succeed in lines of work not offered in the classroom.

Various forms of student participation in school government are in use. One form consists of a students' council for

each grade as well as a teachers' council for that grade, the students' council consisting of the section presidents and the teachers' council comprising the section teachers as well as the nonsection teachers the majority of whose pupils are in that grade. The teachers' council elects its own chairman who is responsible both for the teachers' and students' council for

that grade. In this manner democracy in school government is fostered. Other collateral activities are provided by assemblies, class meetings, and a guidance period.

Solution

Research Will Supply Foundation Scientific Workers Should Choose

IN

Experiments Should be Verified

By THOMAS H. BRIGGS

N SECONDARY EDUCATION the primary need is for an acceptable philosophy, rather than for research. Philosophies we have in plenty, but conditions that have changed rapidly during the past few years-conditions economic, industrial, political, and social outside the schools, and conditions of teachers and pupils within-demand a philosophy that is comprehensive, complete, consistent, convincing, and generally accepted. Only this will give meaning and a reasonable justification to research; only this will supply the stimulus that will lead to the wisdom, technical skill, assiduity, and application necessary for research to come into its own. Research will give the facts on which this new philosophy is built; and when it is proposed, research will furnish the facts leading to its establishment.

Refer all Facts to Approved Philosophy

By way of illustration we may cite two questions that all would like to have answered: (1) Who should be admitted to secondary schools? and (2) What is the relative effectiveness of old and of new type courses in mathematics? Intelligently to consider the first we must know the characteristics of the adolescent population, especially of that fraction which is seeking to continue its education beyond the elementary stages; we should know and consider the educational practices and results of other civilized peoples; we must know what the possibilities are in the secondary schools that we have or may reasonably expect to obtain; we must contemplate the alternatives offered by work or idleness; and so on. All of these facts research can furnish. answer to the question can be satisfactory-no rational answer, indeed, is possible unless we refer all facts to a philosophy to which general approval has been given by the public at large. Similarly for the second question. The effectiveness of mathematics courses, old or new, must be measured by the objectives that are based on a reasonable philosophy of education. The chief rea

But no

son why there has been more research in elementary than in secondary education is that the former is far less complex than the latter; its objectives are more generally understood and approved; its results can be more satisfactorily measured.

First-Hand Inquiry Essence of Research

Research may be defined narrowly or broadly. Its essence is careful first-hand inquiry directed to the discovery of facts. Freed of prejudices it uses suitable techniques to ascertain the truth. But more than this is involved. Research is valuable in proportion as it results from a wide knowledge of related practices in education, a vision growing out of an accepted philosophy, and as it is followed by interpretation that leads to application and change in a program of practice. The field of research in education is not yet so exhausted as to necessitate mere counting or the intensive cultivation of one small area dissociated from the larger plat.

Research in education is a lusty youth. In a few brief but crowded years it has been born and developed and has secured for itself a respect greater than its practices can in every case warrant. Among schoolmen there is a demand for "scientific authority"; and results that are based on figures and footnotes, technique and tables, are with great frequency uncritically accepted. Even competent research workers have been known to give their approval to studies that are fallacious in conception, execution, and interpretation. This unfortunate state of affairs is due largely to the fact that research in education is in a formative stage. Its workers have not yet learned to pass judgment only in the field where they themselves are expert and to be impersonally and fearlessly critical. One thing that research in education needs is more conscientious and thorough critical review of publications. Our reviews are less often soundly critical than superficial and courteous.

Educational research is so young that almost everyone of us can readily recall the intellectual shock, gratification, and

exhilaration that he had when he first realized that problems can and should be solved by methods other than what I like to call "impressionistic." No longer were we to decide on programs by pooling impressions, which were loosely called judgments, or by giving undue deference to the biased opinions of others, especially of those who knew education only from dim and warped memories of old and often unique class practices. The change has been gratifyingly great, quite as great, I suppose, as we could hope for; many and unexpected places. and it is still going on, evidenced in But "impressions" and personal influences are still too potent. They will yield in proportion as research workers can show simply and clearly the facts that necessitate change and that support new proposals.

Research is Almost a Shibboleth

Among school people, research has become almost a shibboleth. There remain a few recalcitrant rejectors, chiefly those to whom any change is abhorrent and those who have good reason to fear that facts will affect the prestige of the practice or subject which they by long habit have come to worship. On the whole, however, respect for research has risen to such an extent that everybody is attempting it. Wherever one goes he hears that ". 'we are experimenting" on this or that experimenting too often without clearly defining the problem, without a sound technique, and with no measured result. "The voice is Jacob's voice, but the hands are the hands of Esau." The challenge to research workers is threefold: First, to retain the respect and enthusiasm of the untrained by sound work, especially that which is practically applicable; second, to popularize results of studies, publishing in such a manner that any intelligent reader can to some extent appreciate the technique used and the conclusions reached; and third, to utilize the present hospitality to secure opportunities for experimentation under the normal conditions of the classroom.

In our enthusiasm over the possibilities of research in education we have perhaps attempted to make scientific workers of too many people who are unfitted by nature, temperament, and general education; we have certified as competent too many who are not and never can be. Almost any intelligent and industrious graduate student can, under the guidance of an inventive, analytic, generous, patient, and charitable director, produce one respectably scientific study. He is not a research worker if he stops at that. "Professor," said a student as he handed in his dissertation, "people will think that you are responsible for all the scientific work in this." "If you do not produce anything else," responded the professor, "they will know that I am." I do not mean to be too critical here, for there are many extenuating circumstances; I am merely preparing to say that another important obligation of the research worker is to train teachers, administrators, and even laymen who can never do research work themselves to appreciate as well as respect the scientific method and its results.

Topics Enough for Years of Study

From forty-odd respondents I have received more topics for research in secondary education than have been attempted altogether anywhere up to this time. Indeed, an analysis of any major problem, such as that of the curriculum or of method or of social control, will furnish enough detailed topics to keep busy all the graduate students of any university for years to come. Why have we had so little research in the field? First of all, because research in education is so young and competent research workers are so few. The competent who have reasonable time which they may devote to research are fewer still. Primarily, they are all employed as teachers. They carry as heavy a teaching load as other professors, and their very competence usually involves them in other undertakings that are imminent or that are imposed on them by appreciative administrators. Research may not be more timeconsuming than any other important work; but even the simplest problem properly attacked requires not only astonishing time, but also continuity and nerve-racking persistence. The results sometimes do not seem to repay for the expenditure indeed, they may not. But, as in other fields, we may be perfectly sure that the most important discoveries will never come unless the research worker is not only permitted but also encouraged to develop his technique by such investigations as challenge his interest. One result may pay for years and years of apparent waste.

As one reflects on the problems in secondary education (later to be illustrated) that need solution he is irresistibly forced to the conclusion that for the sake of economy and effectiveness of practice there must be a great, in comparison with present practice an incredibly great, increase in the amount of research. Millions of dollars are wasted annually and thousands of young people are made less effective certainly than they could be largely because research has not given us the facts that would warrant and necessitate changes. If support for this needed research is to be secured, it is incumbent on scientific workers:

Attack Related Topics Consecutively

1. To choose wisely subjects for research. Even in the training of students it is possible to lay emphasis on desired practical outcomes. Certainly when a man is expert in research his time is too valuable to be spent on projects that do not promise some material contribution to the improvement of practice. There is an economy, if the broad requirements of teaching permit, for a research man to attack one after another topics that contribute to some one inclusive major problem.

2. To develop research by sound technique. There are to-day so many good techniques, all of them clearly presented in manuals and in reports that there is little excuse for poor work. Only a few men are competent to develop new techniques, and this their genius will compel them to do. The great majority of research workers in the field of education can make their greatest contribution by appropriately applying over and over again the methods that are already proved sound. There is still a plentiful opportunity here.

Clearness Imperative; Attractiveness is Possible

3. To report their studies clearly. In the past few years there has been a marked improvement, as anyone may see by examining the files of magazines, in the manner of reporting research studies. The problems are more clearly stated, the proposed procedure outlined, the data presented, the results set forth, and the whole summarized. Yet there is more to do. Clearness is imperative, and it is not too much, as we may learn from reports in other fields, to expect a certain amount of attractiveness in reports. A frank criticism, a statement of unsolved problems, and implications of the results would add value to publication.

4. To popularize results. It may be too much to expect all research workers to do this, but there is a crying need for it to be done by somebody. A considerable number of reports of importance to

practice have had little or no effect on school procedures. This is due partly to the fact that the reports are not widely known, partly because we have not trained administrators and teachers to be alert to a kind of research for which they are quite competent, experimentation in administration and in classroom procedures, and partly because few take the initiative to stimulate school people to overcome the inertia of traditional practice.

Need Series of Synthetic Researches

What Prof. Francis D. Curtis, of the University of Michigan, says of curriculum studies is applicable to other fields as well. He writes, "The curricular researches in secondary science to date have been fragmentary and narrow. Somebody makes a little investigation of magazine science, or children's interests, or what not, and nothing further is done about the findings other than to publish them. None of this material is used in any way in the building of saner or better curricula or syllabi; authors continue to follow the same old lines with little or no deviation except that dictated by their own personal biases. The need is, therefore, for somebody to undertake to carry on or direct a series of synthetic researches, attempting to analyze out whatever elements of basic value in the making of curricula may be in each of the studies thus far made-all of them-and to devise a means of evaluating and weighting each of these basic curricular elements in building up better curricula than we now have. There ought to be some light upon this problem hidden in every research inquiring into materials which people actually use or are interested in; the present need is to find somebody willing to undertake and see through the colossal task involved in the attempt to clarify and select objectively the elements in every branch of secondary science and no doubt the same thing is true of all the branches of secondary education."

Summary without Evaluation May be Harmful

Some years ago Professor Pittenger summarized in one of the popular educational magazines what investigators had found regarding marks and marking systems; later, Rugg performed a similar service for transfer studies; and recently there have been several summarizing bulletins from the University of Illinois and other sources. We need more of this. However, as Professor Monroe writes, "uncritical studies may not be very valuable. In fact, I have sometimes thought that a summary without any attempt at evaluation might do more harm than good."

Pertinent to the popularizing of results, perhaps at this time necessary to it,

is a suggestion from Prof. Walter S. Monroe. "In my judgment there is urgent need for a type of critical study in the field of secondary education which is not included in the popular concept of educational research, or at least its exclusion is not explicit. The type of studies which I have in mind are deduction rather than induction. For example, a great deal of so-called research has related to supervised study, but a critical examination of the published reports reveals practically nothing concerning the actual procedures that a teacher should employ in directing learning outside of the recitation period. These procedures will not be discovered directly by collecting and tabulating quantitative data. They must be deduced from the laws of learning and the principles of teaching. It is perhaps true that as yet our formulations of these laws and principles are not sufficiently complete so that the deductions will have a high degree of dependability, but tentative deductions are at least possible. After the procedures which a teacher should employ have been deduced there will, of course, be need for verification which in some cases should be experimental."

Many Experiments are Obviously Defective Another task that research workers should undertake is the repetition, under exactly the same or under similar conditions, of reported studies. We are far less inclined in education than are workers in other of the older sciences to be critical of what is published, to subject the technique and the reported results to the test of repetition. Many studies are widely cited that have obvious imperfections. Thorndike and Woodworth in their epoch-making experiments on transfer had no check-group of subjects, yet the experiments have never been repeated with this desired detail. Dearborn by repeating the experiments on transfer by Ebert and Meumann revealed a fallacy not widely suspected. And Holley by applying in Illinois Van Denburg's technique showed that the latter's conclusions were not true in a different environment. Prof. W. F. Dyde, of the University of

To ascertain what research workers Advertising Proposed School Bond

think are problems in secondary educa-
tion that should be attacked a circular
letter was sent to the men who are known
to have published in this field. Replies,
many of them of generous length, were
received from 45-about two-thirds, of
them. A none too satisfactory attempt
at tabulation reveals that curriculum
studies are considered most important at
this time; 48 different problems in this
field were proposed. Following are the
numbers of problems proposed in the
more popular fields: Methods (21), or-
ganization (19), teachers (19), psychology
(17), tests (16, of which seven concerned
other things than subject-matter), fi-
nance (9), prognosis (7), the principal
(6), and supervision (6). One field of
research strangely neglected during the
past few years is the history of secondary
education. As Prof. D. H. Eikenberry,
of the University of Missouri, writes:
"Someone should write the history of the
high-school movement from the begin-
ing to
the present time. Brown's
Middle Schools covers the period to about
1900 only. Where can the student find a
satisfactory account of the Commission
on the Reorganization of Secondary
Education?"

Much Important Work Still Remains

A mere reading of the list of problems proposed for research shows that there is a tremendous amount of important work to do and that research workers are cognizant of the need. When we agree,

as soon we must, on a reasonable and c mprehensive philosophy of secondary education there will be many more problems and even greater need for their solution. It is hoped that the points presented in this paper may aid us in bringing pressure to secure greater opportunity for competent men to obtain more time for

research. In the meantime and as further means there are suggested other things that we may do: Select problems of the greater worth, use approved technique, and induce the application in practice of the findings.

mental studies the report of the experiment should always be made with the idea that it can be exactly duplicated. For instance, where two methods of teaching are under comparison it would be considered obligatory upon the investigator to publish a sufficient stenographic sampling of the opposed methods of teaching so that other students could see precisely the nature of the experimental factor." To prove originally meant to test, as in "The exception proves the rule." We need to know to what extent experiments in education will -tand the trial of repetition.

Universities and "other training schools" in the Province of Quebec will benefit by a contemplated increase in the royalty charged upon hydroelectric horsepower under leases granted by the Province. The Provincial Government proposes practically to double the rates. It is explained that expected great industrial growth in the Province will be followed by greater demands upon educational institutions, and that this industry should bear the additional cost of such education.-Albert Halstead, American Consul General, Montreal.

Issues

School bond issues and other important steps in the extension or improvement of school systems do not "just happen." No one doubts that the American people are heart and soul in favor of the public schools, but they enjoy being reminded of that fact and they expect to be taken emphatically into the confidence of those who propose to spend unusual sums for the benefit of the children.

"Methods of advertising proposed bond issues" was the subject of mimeographed circular recently issued by the city schools division of the Bureau of Education, Interior Department. The features of the recent successful campaign at Johnstown, Pa., for a bond issue of $1,250,000 are thus set forth in that circular, which contains many others of the same sort:

1. A mass meeting of all teachers.

2. Organization of citizen committees of 300 by wards and districts.

3. Preparation of a daily memorandum for sending to a large mailing list outlining systematically the arguments for the bond issue.

4. Organized bond-issue songs.

5. Slogans, rhymes, etc., with contests in the schools. 6. Carefully prepared paid advertising in the daily papers, from one-eighth to one-fourth page.

7. Inserted "Vote 'Yes' for school bonds November 2" in four or five places in the local columns of both daily papers.

8. Elimination contests in schools for best fourminute speeches (boys and girls) on the school bond issue.

9. Slides shown between pictures in all "movies" each evening: "Vote for school bonds."

10. Community meetings, music and entertainments by the schools, addresses by the board of education and leading citizens.

11. Prepared newspaper publicity for every com munity meeting.

12. Pictures and feature articles descriptive of undesirable school situations.

13. Four-minute speeches between shows in the theaters and "movies."

14. Display float, "There was an old woman who lived in a shoe," for Halloween celebration. 15. Monster parades of school children, just before election day.

16. Billboard poster advertising. 17. Automobile banners.

18. Handbills and dodgers to be sent home by the children several times during the campaign.

19. Special bond issue number of the grade school, evening school, and junior high school papers.

20. Speeches in the churches by the school children Sunday prior to election day.

21. Lapel tags, "Vote 'yes' for school bonds." 22. Workers hand cards.

23. Personal workers at the polls.

A professional school for women has been established at LaPaz by the Bolivian Government in response to a vigorous campaign conducted by women's clubs and societies. Its curriculum is designed to include all subjects which are necessary in home making and to enable a women to maintain herself if she is thrown upon her own resources. No public school of this kind has existed in Bolivia heretofore.Jesse S. Cottrell, American Minister.

condition in certain sections of the city.

W

By WALTER B. PATTERSON

Supervisor of Special Activities for the District of Columbia

HEN the schools of the District of Columbia were reorganized in 1906, provision was made for the establishment of disciplinary classes to be known as ungraded schools. At the same session of Congress, a compulsory education law was enacted that brought into the schools many children of impaired mentality, requiring segregation in atypical classes. These were the initial steps that led eventually to the placing of special activities under the direction of separate supervisors, one in the white schools and one in the colored schools. There are now 8 white ungraded teachers and 10 colored; 14 white teachers for atypical classes and 6 colored. For children of irregular schooling and for "overage" pupils coaching classes have been opened in such localities as most needed them. The coaching process became so popular that each large building adopted the idea and it also became the leading feature of the summer schools.

Open-window classes for anemic and delicate children are located in the Blake and Stevens Schools, and children needing special care and treatment for respiratory troubles receive unusual attention in the New Health School and the Harrison. This New Health School is located at Thirteenth and Webster Streets NW., and is well worth a visit, not only by teachers but by those interested in building construction, inasmuch as this school presents several unique features well adapted to the purpose of restoring health to suffering children. The school is a modern one-story and basement brick building with ample facilities not only for class instruction but also for rest, play, fresh air, and sunlight. There are two construction units with a central paved court between them. Each unit consists of three subdivisions, a classroom, a large rest room, and an intermediate patio or court, open on the south and paved with tile. Skylights and numerous large windows with hinged transoms admit light and air. Casement doorways lead to the open court. A complete vacuum system takes care of the sanitation of the building. In the rear of each unit are additional rooms for manual training and household sciences. The kitchen is equipped with sterilizing apparatus and other modern appliances. Smaller rooms are also provided for the

nurse, for the sick, for storage and other needs. In the basement are the boiler and fuel rooms, a place for the janitor and his supplies, as well as a fully equipped laundry. A clothes chute leads to the laundry from the main floor. The interior effect is pleasing, as extreme care was taken in the matter of coloring and finishing. The plastered walls are smooth, and in harmonizing colors restful to the eyes. A feature worthy of notice is that the building is extensible so that other units may be added at any time.

Speech correction and improvement began with a single teacher but now embraces 10, with a strong demand for more. This phase of special work deals not alone

One of the features of this department is the Americanization work at the

Webster School, Tenth and H Streets NW. Foreign students, old and young, of various nationalities attend the day or night classes. These classes are open each school day and Monday, Tuesday, and Thursday evenings. There are 6 day teachers and more than 20 evening teachers. The classes are graded and are for beginning, intermediate, advanced, and naturalization students. The direct method of teaching the language is used in all classes, and special adaptation has been made of visual instruction through the use of the motion picture for language and content study.

From the naturalization classes men and women who have completed the citizenship course appear in the Supreme Court of the District of Columbia for the final hearing of their naturalization cases. A representative of the school is present at the hearings and all data relative to the cases being heard is recorded; the rep

with teaching of phonics but aims to correct lisping, stammering, stuttering, and other functional and organic speech disorders. In this connection it should be noted that some experimental work in dramatics is now undergoing observation in the colored schools.

The establishment of additional lines of special endeavor, such as deferred speech, sight conservation, orthopedic and other classes necessarily depends upon the outcome of the five-year building program. While other cities may have these classes, it is not advisable to establish them here until a classroom is first provided for every regular grade and

resentative also answers questions of the court bearing on cases of Americanization students.

The Americanization School Association, an alumni and student organization, carries on many educational and social activities, sustains a library, and publishes a paper. Patriotic organizations have aided in the success of the school by uninterrupted cooperation. The work is not only beneficial to aliens but also to illiterate Americans of advanced age, who join with the others in learning to read and write the English language, and in realizing the full meaning of citizenship in the United States of America.