Juliette. At the end of the year she returned with her | Rev. xii. 1. She wandered with Kellner from place to place, daughters and Empeytaz to Baden, a fateful migration.

The empress Elizabeth of Russia was now at Karlsruhe; and she and the pietist ladies of her entourage hoped that the emperor Alexander might find at the hands of Madame de Krüdener the peace which an interview with Jung-Stilling had failed to bring him. The baroness herself wrote urgent letters to Roxane de Stourdza, sister of the tsar's Rumanian secretary, begging her to procure an interview. There seemed to be no result; but the correspondence paved the way for the opportunity which a strange chance was to give her of realizing her ambition. In the spring of 1815 the baroness was settled at Schlüchtern, a piece of Baden territory enclave in Württemberg, busy persuading the peasants to sell all and fly from the wrath to come. Near this, at Heilbronn, the emperor Alexander established his headquarters on the 4th of June. That very night the baroness | sought and obtained an interview. To the tsar, who had been brooding alone over an open Bible, her sudden arrival seemed an answer to his prayers; for three hours the prophetess preached her strange gospel, while the most powerful man in Europe sat, his face buried in his hands, sobbing like a child; until at last he declared that he had "found peace." At the tsar's request she followed him to Heidelberg and later to Paris, where she was lodged at the Hôtel Montchenu, next door to the imperial headquarters in the Elysée Palace. A private door connected the establishments, and every evening the emperor went to take part in the prayer-meetings conducted by the baroness and Empeytaz. Chiliasm seemed to have found an entrance into the high councils of Europe, and the baroness von Krüdener had become a political force to be reckoned with. Admission to her religious gatherings was sought by a crowd of people celebrated in the intellectual and social world; Châteaubriand came, and Benjamin Constant, Madame Récamier, the duchesse de Bourbon, and Madame de Duras. The fame of the wonderful conversion, moreover, attracted other members of the chiliastic fraternity, among them Fontaines, who brought with him the prophetess Marie Kummer.

In this religious forcing-house the idea of the Holy Alliance germinated and grew to rapid maturity. On the 26th of September the portentous proclamation, which was to herald the opening of a new age of peace and goodwill on earth, was signed by the sovereigns of Russia, Austria and Prussia (see HOLY ALLIANCE; and EUROPE: History). Its authorship has ever been a matter of dispute. Madame de Krüdener herself claimed that she had suggested the idea, and that Alexander had submitted the draft for her approval. This is probably correct, though the tsar later, when he had recovered his mental equilibrium, reproved her for her indiscretion in talking of the matter. His eyes, indeed, had begun to be opened before he left Paris, and Marie Kummer was the unintentional cause. At the very first séance the prophetess, whose revelations had been praised by the baroness in extravagant terms, had the evil inspiration to announce in her trance to the emperor that it was God's will that he should endow the religious colony to which she belonged! Alexander merely remarked that he had received too many such revelations before to be impressed. The baroness's influence was shaken but not destroyed, and before he left Paris Alexander gave her a passport to Russia. She was not, however, destined to see him again.

She left Paris on the 22nd of October 1815, intending to travel to St Petersburg by way of Switzerland. The tsar, however, offended by her indiscretions and sensible of the ridicule which his relations with her had brought upon him, showed little disposition to hurry her arrival. She remained in Switzerland, where she presently fell under the influence of an unscrupulous adventurer named J. G. Kellner. For months Empeytaz, an honest enthusiast, struggled to save her from this man's clutches, but in vain. Kellner too well knew how to flatter the baroness's inordinate vanity: the author of the Holy Alliance could be none other than the "woman clothed with the sun" of Berckheim had been French commissioner of police in Mainz and had abandoned his post in 1813.

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proclaiming her mission, working miracles, persuading her converts to sell all and follow her. Crowds of beggars and rapscal lions of every description gathered wherever she went, supported by the charities squandered from the common fund. She became a nuisance to the authorities and a menace to the peace; Württemberg had expelled her, and the example was followed by every Swiss canton she entered in turn. At last, in August 1817, she set out for her estate in Livonia, accompanied by Kellner and a remnant of the elect.

The emperor Alexander having opened the Crimea to German and Swiss chiliasts in search of a land of promise, the baroness's son-in-law Berckheim and his wife now proceeded thither to help establish the new colonies. In November 1820 the baroness at last went herself to St Petersburg, where Berckheim was lying ill. She was there when the news arrived of Ypsilanti's invasion of the Danubian principalities, which opened the war of Greek independence. She at once proclaimed the divine mission of the tsar to take up arms on behalf of Christendom. Alexander, however, had long since exchanged her influence for that of Metternich, and he was far from anxious to be forced into even a holy war. To the baroness's overtures he replied in a long and polite letter, the gist of which was that she must leave St Petersburg at once. In 1823 the death of Kellner, whom to the last she regarded as a saint, was a severe blow to her. Her health was failing, but she allowed herself to be persuaded by Princess Galitzin to accompany her to the Crimea, where she had established a Swiss colony. Here, at Karasu Bazar, she died on the 25th of December 1824.

Sainte-Beuve said of Madame de Krüdener: "Elle avait un immense besoin que le monde s'occupât d'elle. . . ; l'amour propre, toujours l'amour propre... !" A kindlier epitaph might, perhaps, be written in her own words, uttered after the revelation of the misery of the Crimean colonists had at last opened her eyes: "The good that I have done will endure; the evil that I have done (for how often have I not mistaken for the voice of God that which was no more than the result of my imagination and my pride) the mercy of God will blot out."

Much information about Madame de Krüdener, coloured by the author's views, is to be found in H. L. Empeytaz's Notice sur Alexandre, empereur de Russie (2nd ed., Paris, 1840). The Vie de Madame de Krudener (2 vols., Paris, 1849), by the Swiss banker and Philhellene J. G. Eynard, was long the standard life and contains much material, but is far from authoritative. In English appeared the Life and Letters of Madame de Krüdener, by Clarence Ford (London, 1893). The most authoritative study, based on a wealth of original research, is E. Muhlenbeck's Étude sur les origines de la Sainte-Alliance (Paris, 1909), in which numerous references are given. (W. A. P.)

KRUG, WILHELM TRAUGOTT (1770-1842), German philosopher and author, was born at Radis in Prussia on the 22nd of June 1770, and died at Leipzig on the 12th of January 1842. He studied at Wittenberg under Reinhard and Jehnichen, at Jena under Reinhold, and at Göttingen. From 1801 to 1804 be was professor of philosophy at Frankfort-on-the-Oder, after which he succeeded Kant in the chair of logic and metaphysics at the university of Königsberg. From 1809 till his death be was professor of philosophy at Leipzig. He was a prolific writer on a great variety of subjects, in all of which he excelled as a popularizer rather than as an original thinker. In philosophy his method was psychological; he attempted to explain the Ego by examining the nature of its reflection upon the facts of consciousness. Being is known to us only through its presentation in consciousness; consciousness only in its relation to Being. Both Being and Consciousness, however, are immediately known to us, as also the relation existing between them. By this Transcendental Synthesis he proposed to reconcile Realism and Idealism, and to destroy the traditional difficulty between transcendental, or pure, thought and "things in themselves." Apart from the intrinsic value of his work, it is admitted that it had the effect of promoting the study of philosophy and of stimulating freedom of thought in religion and politics. His principal works are: Briefe über den neuesten Idealismus

(1801); Versuch über die Principien der philosophischen Erkennt | engaged in distant hunting excursions which took him as far niss (1801); Fundamental philosophie (1803); System der theoretischen Philosophie (1806-1810), System der praktischen Philosophie (1817-1819); Handbuch der Philosophie (1820; 3rd ed., 1828); Logik oder Denklehre (1827); Geschichte der Philos. aller Zeit (1815; 2nd ed., 1825); Allgemeines Handwörterbuch der philosophischen Wissenschaften (1827-1834; 2nd ed., 1832-1838); Universal-philosophische Vorlesungen für Gebildete beiderlei Geschlechts. His work Beiträge zur Geschichte der Philos. des XIX. Jahrh. (1835-1837) contains interesting criticisms of Hegel and Schelling.

north as the Zambezi. In 1852 the Transvaal secured the recognition of its independence from Great Britain in the Sand River convention. For many years after this date the condition of the country was one bordering upon anarchy, and into the faction strife which was continually going on Kruger freely entered. In 1856-1857 he joined M. W. Pretorius in his attempt to abolish the district governments in the Transvaal and to overthrow the Orange Free State government and compel a federation between the two countries. The raid into the Free State failed; the blackest incident in connexion with it was

See also his autobiography, Meine Lebensreise (Leipzig, 2nd ed., the attempt of the Pretorius and Kruger party to induce the 1840).

KRUGER, STEPHANUS JOHANNES PAULUS (1825-1904), president of the Transvaal Republic, was born in Colesberg, Cape Colony, on the 10th of October 1825. His father was Caspar Jan Hendrick Kruger, who was born in 1796, and whose wife bore the name of Steyn. In his ancestry on both sides occur Huguenot names. The founder of the Kruger family appears to have been a German named Jacob Kruger, who in 1713 was sent with others by the Dutch East India Company to the Cape. At the age of ten Paul Kruger-as he afterwards came to be known-accompanied his parents in the migration, known as the Great Trek, from the Cape Colony to the territories north of the Orange in the years 1835-1840. From boyhood his life was one of adventure. Brought up on the borderland between civilization and barbarism, constantly trekking, fighting and hunting, his education was necessarily of the most primitive character. He learnt to read and to write, and was taught the narrowest form of Dutch Presbyterianism. His literature was almost confined to the Bible, and the Old Testament was preferred to the New. It is related of Kruger, as indeed it has been said of Piet Retief and others of the early Boer leaders, that he believed himself the object of special Divine guidance. At about the age of twenty-five he is said to have disappeared into the veldt, where he remained alone for several days, under the influence of deep religious fervour. During this sojourn in the wilderness Kruger stated that he had been especially favoured by God, who had communed with and inspired him. Throughout his life he professed this faith in God's will and guidance, | and much of his influence over his followers is attributable to their belief in his sincerity and in his enjoyment of Divine favour. The Dutch Reformed Church in the Transvaal, pervaded by a spirit and faith not unlike those which distinguished the Covenanters, was divided in the early days into three sects. Of these the narrowest, most puritanical, and most bigoted was the Dopper sect, to which Kruger belonged. His Dopper following was always unswerving in its support, and at all critical times in the internal quarrels of the state rallied round him. The charge of hypocrisy, frequently made against Kruger-if by this charge is meant the mere juggling with religion for purely political ends-does not appear entirely just. The subordination of reason to a sense of superstitious fanaticism is the keynote of his character, and largely the explanation of his life. Where faith is so profound as to believe the Divine guidance all, and the individual intelligence nil, a man is able to persuade himself that any course he chooses to take is the one he is directed to take. Where bigotry is so blind, reason is but dust in the balance. At the same time there were incidents in Kruger's life which but ill conform to any Biblical standard he might choose to adopt or feel imposed upon him. Even van Oordt, his eloquent historian and apologist, is cognisant of this fact.

When the lad, who had already taken part in fights with the Matabele and the Zulus, was fourteen his family settled north of the Vaal and were among the founders of the Transvaal state. At the age of seventeen Paul found himself an assistant field cornet, at twenty he was field cornet, and at twenty-seven held a command in an expedition against the Bechuana chief Sechele -the expedition in which David Livingstone's mission-house was destroyed.

In 1853 he took part in another expedition against Montsioa. When not fighting natives in those early days Kruger was

Basuto to harass the Free State forces behind, while they were attacking them in front.

From this time forward Kruger's life is so intimately bound up with the history of his country, and even in later years of South Africa, that a study of that history is essential to an understanding of it (see TRANSVAAL and SOUTH AFRICA). In 1864, when the faction fighting ended and Pretorius was president, Kruger was elected commandant-general of the forces of the Transvaal. In 1870 a boundary dispute arose with the British government, which was settled by the Keate award (1871). The decision caused so much discontent in the Transvaal that it brought about the downfall of President Pretorius and his party; and Thomas François Burgers, an educated Dutch minister, resident in Cape Colony, was elected to succeed him. During the term of Burgers' presidency Kruger appeared to great disadvantage. Instead of loyally supporting the president in the difficult task of building up a stable state, he did everything in his power to undermine his authority, going so far as to urge the Boers to pay no taxes while Burgers was in office. The faction of which he was a prominent member was chiefly responsible for bringing about that impasse in the government of the country which drew such bitter protest from Burgers and terminated in the annexation by the British in April 1877. At this period of Transvaal history it is impossible to trace any true patriotism in the action of the majority of the inhabitants. The one idea of Kruger and his faction was to oust Burgers from office on any pretext, and, if possible, to put Kruger in his place. When the downfall of Burgers was assured and annexation offered itself as the alternative resulting from his downfall, it is true that Kruger opposed it. But matters had gone too far. Annexation became an accomplished fact, and Kruger accepted paid office under the British government. He continued, however, so openly to agitate for the retrocession of the country, being a member of two deputations which went to England endeavouring to get the annexation annulled, that in 1878 Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the British administrator, dismissed him from his service. In 1880 the Boer rebellion occurred, and Kruger was one of the famous triumvirate, of which General Piet Joubert and Pretorius were the other members, who, after Majuba, negotiated the terms of peace on which the Pretoria convention of August 1881 was drafted. In 1883 he was elected president of the Transvaal, receiving 3431 votes as against 1171 recorded for Joubert.

In November 1883 President Kruger again visited England, this time for the purpose of getting another convention. The visit was successful, the London convention, which for years was a subject of controversy, being granted by Lord Derby in 1884 on behalf of the British government. The government of the Transvaal being once more in the hands of the Boers, the country rapidly drifted towards that state of national bankruptcy from which it had only been saved by annexation in 1877. In 1886, the year in which the Rand mines were discovered, President Kruger was by no means a popular man even among his own followers; as an administrator of internal affairs he had shown himself grossly incompetent, and it was only the specious success of his negotiations with the British government which had retained him any measure of support. In 1888 he was elected president for a second term of office. In 1889 Dr. Leyds, a young Hollander, was appointed state secretary, and the system of state monopolies around which so much corruption grew up was soon

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in full course of development. The principle of government | without the Free State itself receiving anything in return. monopoly in trade being thus established, President Kruger now Kruger thus achieved one of the objects of his life. With such turned his attention to the further securing of Boer political a history of apparent success, it is not to be wondered at that monopoly. The Uitlanders were increasing in numbers, as well the Transvaal president came to Bloemfontein to meet Sir as providing the state with a revenue. In 1890, 1891, 1892, and Alfred Milner in no mood for concession. It is true that he 1894 the franchise laws (which at the time of the convention were made an ostensible offer on the franchise question, but that on a liberal basis) were so modified that all Uitlanders were proposal was made dependent on so many conditions that it practically excluded altogether. In 1893 Kruger had to face a was a palpable sham. Every proposition which Sir Alfred third presidential election, and on this occasion the opposition Milner made was met by the objection that it threatened the he had raised among the burgers, largely by the favouritism independence of the Transvaal. This retort was President he displayed to the Hollander party, was so strong that it was Kruger's rallying cry whenever he found himself in the least fully anticipated that his more liberal opponent, General Joubert, degree pressed, either from within or without the state. To would be elected. Before the election was decided Kruger admit Uitlanders to the franchise, to no matter how moderate took care to conciliate the volksraad members, as well as to a degree, would destroy the independence of the state. In see that at all the volksraad elections, which occurred shortly October 1899, after a long and fruitless correspondence with before the presidential election, his supporters were returned, or, the British government, war with Great Britain was ushered if not returned, that his opponents were objected to on some in by an ultimatum from the Transvaal. Immediately after trivial pretext, and by this means prevented from actually sitting the ultimatum Natal and the Cape Colony were invaded by the in the volksraad until the presidential election was over. The Boers both of the Transvaal and the Free State. Yet one of Hollander and concessionnaire influence, which had become a the most memorable utterances made by Kruger at the Bloemstrong power in the state, was all in favour of President Kruger. fontein conference was couched in the following terms: "We In spite of these facts Kruger's position was insecure. "General follow out what God says; Accursed be he that removeth his Joubert was, without any doubt whatever, elected by a very neighbour's landmark.' As long as your Excellency lives you considerable majority." But the figures as announced gave will see that we shall never be the attacking party on another Kruger a majority of about 700 votes. General Joubert accused man's land." The course of the war that followed is described the government of tampering with the returns, and appealed under TRANSVAAL. In 1900, Bloemfontein and Pretoria having to the volksraad. The appeal, however, was fruitless, and been occupied by British troops, Kruger, too old to go on Kruger retained office. The action taken by President Kruger commando, with the consent of his executive proceeded to at this election, and his previous actions in ousting President Europe, where he endeavoured to induce the European powers Burgers and in absolutely excluding the Uitlanders from the to intervene on his behalf, but without success. franchise, all show that at any cost, in his opinion, the government must remain a close corporation, and that while he lived he must remain at the head of it.

From this time he ceased to have any political influence. He took up his residence at Utrecht, where he dictated a record of his career, published in 1902 under the title of The Memoirs From 1877 onward Kruger's external policy was consistently of Paul Kruger. He died on the 14th of July 1904 at Clarens, anti-British, and on every side-in Bechuanaland, in Rhodesia, near Vevey, on the shores of the Lake of Geneva, whither he in Zululand-he attempted to enlarge the frontiers of the had gone for the sake of his health. He was buried at Pretoria Transvaal at the expense of Great Britain. In these disputes on the following 16th of December, Dingaan's Day, the anrihe usually gained something, and it was not until 1895 that he versary of the day in 1838 when the Boers crushed the Zulu was definitely defeated in his endeavours to obtain a seaport. king Dingaan-a fight in which Kruger, then a lad of thirteen, His internal policy was blind, reckless and unscrupulous, and had taken part. Kruger was thrice married, and had a large inevitably led to disaster. It may be summed up in his own family. His second wife died in 1891. When he went to words when replying to a deputation of Uitlanders, who desired Europe he left his third wife in Lord Roberts's custody at Preto obtain the legalization of the use of the English language in toria, but she gradually failed, and died there (July 1901). It the Transvaal. "This," said Kruger, " is my country; these are was in her grave that the body of her husband was laid. It is my laws. Those who do not like to obey my laws can leave my recorded that when a statue to President Kruger at Pretoria country." This rejection of the advances of the Uitlanders- was erected, it was by Mrs. Kruger's wish that the hat was left by whose aid he could have built up a free and stable republic-open at the top, in order that the rain-water might collect there led to his downfall, though the failure of the Jameson Raid in the first days of 1896 gave him a signal opportunity to secure the safety of his country by the grant of real reforms. But the Raid taught him no lesson of this kind, and despite the intervention of the British government the Uitlanders' grievances were not remedied.

In 1898 Kruger was elected president of the Transvaal for the fourth and last time. In 1899 relations between the Transvaal and Great Britain had become so strained, by reason of the oppression of the foreign population, that a conference was arranged at Bloemfontein between Sir Alfred (afterwards Lord) | Milner, the high commissioner, and President Kruger. Kruger was true to his principles. At every juncture in his life his object had been to gain for himself and his own narrow policy everything that he could, while conceding nothing in return. It was for this reason that he invariably failed to come to any arrangement with Sir John Brand while the latter was president of the Free State. In 1889, the very year following President Brand's death, he was able to make a treaty with President Reitz, his successor, which bound each of the Boer republics to assist the other in case its independence was menaced, unless the quarrel could be shown to be an unjust one on the part of the state so menaced. In effect it bound the Free State to share all the hazardous risk of the reckless anti-British Transvaal policy, 1 Sir Percy Fitzpatrick, in The Transvaal from Within, ch. iii.

for the birds to drink.

See J. F. van Oordt, P. Kruger en de opkomst d. Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (Amsterdam, 1898); the Memoirs already mentioned; F. R. Statham, Paul Kruger and his Times (1898); and, among works with a wider scope, G. M. Theal, History of South Africa (for events down to 1872 only); Sir J. P. Fitzpatrick, The Transtual from Within (1899); The Times History of the War in South Africa (1900-9); and A. P. Hillier, South African Studies (1900).

KRUGERSDORP, a town of the Transvaal, 21 m. N.W. of Johannesburg by rail. Pop. (1904), 20,073, of whom 6946 were whites. It is built on the Witwatersrand at an elevation of 5709 ft. above the sea, and is a mining centre of some importance. It is also the starting-point of a railway to Zeerust and Mafeking. Krugersdorp was founded in 1887 at the time of the discovery of gold on the Rand and is named after President Kruger. Within the municipal area is the Paardekraal monument erected to commemorate the victory gained by the Boers under Andrics Pretorius in 1838 over the Zulu king Dingaan, and on the 16th of December each year, kept as a public holiday, large numbers of Boers assemble at the monument to celebrate the evert. Here in December 1880 a great meeting of Boers resolved again to proclaim the independence of the Transvaal. The formal proclamation was made on Dingaan's Day, and after the defeat of the British at Majuba Hill in 1881 that victory was also commemorated at Paardekraal on the 16th of December. The monument, which was damaged during the war of 1899-1902,

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was restored by the British authorities. It was at Doornkop,
near Krugersdorp, that Dr L. S. Jameson and his "raiders
surrendered to Commandant Piet Cronje on the 2nd of January
1896 (see TRANSVAAL: History). At Sterkfontein, 8 m. N.W.
of Krugersdorp, are limestone caves containing beautiful
stalactites.
KRUMAU (in Czech, Krumlov), is a town in Bohemia situated
on the banks of the Moldau (Vitava). It has about 8000
inhabitants, partly of Czech, partly of German nationality.
Krumau is principally celebrated because its ancient castle
was long the stronghold of the Rosenberg family, known also
as pani z ruze, the lords of the rose. Henry II. of Rosenberg
(d. 1310) was the first member of the family to reside at Krumau.
His son Peter I. (d. 1349) raised the place to the rank of a city.
The last two members of the family were two brothers, William,
created prince of Ursini-Rosenberg in 1556 (d. 1592), and Peter
Vok, who played a very large part in Bohemian history. Their
librarian was Wenceslas Brezan, who has left a valuable work on
the annals of the Rosenberg family. Peter Vok of Rosenberg, a
strong adherent of the Utraquist party, sold Krumau shortly
before his death (1611), because the Jesuits had established
themselves in the neighbourhood.

The lordship, one of the most extensive in the monarchy, was bought by the emperor Rudolph II. for his natural son, Julius of Austria. In 1622 the emperor Ferdinand II. presented the lordship to his minister, Hans Ulrich von Eggenberg, and in 1625 raised it to the rank of an hereditary duchy in his favour. From the Eggenberg family Krumau passed in 1719 to Prince Adam Franz Karl of Schwarzenberg, who was created duke of Krumau in 1723. The head of the Schwarzenberg family bears the title of duke of Krumau. The castle, one of the largest and finest in Bohemia, preserves much of its ancient character.

See W. Brezan, Zivot Vilema 2 Rosenberka (Life of William of Rosenberg), 1847; also Zivot Petra Voka z Rosenberka (I ife of Peter Vok of Rosenberg), 1880.

from the interior, but have long been noted as skilful seamen and daring fishermen. They are a stout, muscular, broadchested race, probably the most robust of African peoples. They have true negro features-skin of a blue-black hue and woolly and abundant hair. The women are of a lighter shade than negro women generally, and in several respects come much nearer to a European standard. Morally as well as physically the Krumen are one of the most remarkable races in Africa. They are honest, brave, proud, so passionately fond of freedom that they will starve or drown themselves to escape capture, and have never trafficked in slaves. Politically the Krus are divided into small commonwealths, each with an hereditary chief whose duty is simply to represent the people in their dealings with strangers. The real government is vested in the elders, who wear as insignia iron rings on their legs. Their president, the head fetish-man, guards the national symbols, and his house is sanctuary for offenders till their guilt is proved. Personal property is held in common by each family. Land also is communal, but the rights of the actual cultivator cease only when he fails to farm it.

At 14 or 15 the Kru "boys" eagerly contract themselves for voyages of twelve or eighteen months. Generally they prefer work near at home, and are to be found on almost every ship trading on the Guinea coast. As soon as they have saved enough to buy a wife they return home and settle down. Krumen ornament their faces with tribal marks-black or blue lines on the forehead and from ear to ear. They tattoo their arms and mutilate the incisor teeth. As a race they are singularly intelligent, and exhibit their enterprise in numerous settlements along the coast. Sierra Leone, Grand Bassa and Monrovia all have their Kru towns. Dr Bleek classifies the Kru language with the Mandingo family, and in this he is followed by Dr R. G. Latham; Dr Kölle, who published a Kru grammar (1854), considers it as distinct.

KRUMMACHER, FRIEDRICH ADOLF (1767-1845), German theologian, was born on the 13th of July 1767 at Tecklenburg, Westphalia. Having studied theology at Lingen and Halle, he became successively rector of the grammar school at Mörs (1793), professor of theology at Duisburg (1800), preacher at Crefeld, and afterwards at Kettwig, Consistorialrath and superintendent in Bernburg, and, after declining an invitation to the university of Bonn, pastor of the Ansgariuskirche in Bremen (1824). He died at Bremen on the 14th of April 1845. He was the author of many religious works, but is best known by his Parabeln (1805; 9th ed. 1876; Eng. trans. 1844). A. W. Möller published his life and letters in 1849.

See A. de Quatrefages and E. T. Hamy, Crania ethnica, ix. 363 (1878-1879); Schlagint weit-Sakunlunski, in the Sitzungsberichte of KRUMBACHER, CARL (1856-1909), German Byzantine the academy at Munich (1875); Nicholas, in Bull. de la Soc. d'Anscholar, was born at Kürnach in Bavaria on the 23rd of Sep-throp. (Paris, 1872); J. Büttikofer, Reisebilder aus Liberia (Leiden, tember 1856. He was educated at the universities of Munich 1890); Sir H. H. Johnston, Liberia (London, 1906). and Leipzig, and held the professorship of the middle age and modern Greek language and literature in the former from 1897 to his death. His greatest work is his Geschichte der byzantinischen Litteratur (from Justinian to the fall of the Eastern Empire, 1453), a second edition of which was published in 1897, with the collaboration of A. Ehrhard (section on theology) and H. Gelzer (general sketch of Byzantine history, A.D. 395-1453). The value of the work is greatly enhanced by the elaborate bibliographies contained in the body of the work and in a special supplement. Krumbacher also founded the Byzantinische Zeitschrift (1892) and the Byzantinisches Archiv (1898). He travelled extensively and the results of a journey to Greece appeared in his Griechische Reise (1886). Other works by him are: Casia (1897), a treatise on a 9th-century Byzantine poetess, with the fragments; Michael Glykas (1894); "Die griechische Litteratur des Mittelalters" in P. Hinneberg's Die Kultur der Gegenwart, i. 8 (1905); Das Problem der neugriechischen Schriftsprache (1902), in which he strongly opposed the efforts of the purists to introduce the classical style into modern Greek literature, and Populäre Aufsätze (1909).

KRUMEN (KROOMEN, KROOBOYS, KRUS, or CROOS), a negro people of the West Coast of Africa. They dwell in villages scattered along the coast of Liberia from below Monrovia nearly to Cape Palmas. The name has been wrongly derived from the English word " crew," with reference to the fact that Krumen were the first West African people to take service in European vessels. It is probably from Kraoh, the primitive name of one of their tribes. Under Krumen are now grouped many kindred tribes, the Grebo, Basa, Nifu, &c., who collectively number some 40,000. The Krus proper live in the narrow strip of coast between the Sino river and Cape Palmas, where are their five chief villages, Kruber, Little Kru, Settra Kru, Nana Kru and King William's Town. They are traditionally

His brother GoTTFRIED DANIEL KRUMMACHER (1774-1837), who studied theology at Duisburg and became pastor successively in Bärl (1798), Wülfrath (1801) and Elberfeld (1816), was the leader of the "pietists" of Wupperthal, and published several volumes of sermons, including one entitled Die Wanderungen Israels durch d. Wüste nach Kanaan (1834).

FRIEDRICH WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1796-1868), son of Friedrich Adolf, studied theology at Halle and Jena, and became pastor successively at Frankfort (1819), Ruhrort (1823), Gemarke, near Barmen in the Wupperthal (1825), and Elberfeld (1834). In 1847 he received an appointment to the Trinity Church in Berlin, and in 1853 he became court chaplain at Potsdam. He was an influential promoter of the Evangelical Alliance. His best-known works are Elias der Thisbiler (1828-1833; 6th ed. 1874; Eng. trans. 1838); Elisa (1837) and Das Passionsbuch, der leidende Christus (1854, in English The Suffering Saviour, 1870). His Autobiography was published in 1869 (Eng. trans. 1871).

EMIL WILHELM KRUMMACHER (1798-1886), another son, was born at Mörs in 1798. In 1841 he became pastor in Duisburg. He wrote, amongst other works, Herzensmanna aus Luthers