came a State by act of Congress. All these new States retained title. to the vacant unappropriated lands within their limits.

Additions to the original territory-the acquisitions of Louisiana from France in 1803 and of Florida from Spain in 1819, the Texas annexation in 1845, the establishment of American title to Oregon Territory in 1846, the Mexican cession of 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase from Mexico in 1853-brought the aggregate area of the conterminous United States within its present boundaries to 3,022,387 square miles. All the vast area west of the Mississippi except the State of Texas became a part of the public domain, the United States retaining the ownership of the public lands. Congress made an exception for Texas, consenting to its admission into the Union with the provision that Texas should hold title to all vacant unappropriated lands within its limits.

The Thirteen Original States organized the Federal Union under the name of "The United States of America" by ratifying the Articles of Confederation and, subsequently, the Constitution. The boundaries of these States were not defined in the Acts of ratification, but in general the States maintained their claim to their colonial boundaries which had been established by royal decree or by agreement. Some overlapping territorial claims were not finally settled until many years later by decision of our highest court.

The other States were admitted into the Union by acts of Congress, usually upon petition of the citizens residing in the territories in question. The boundaries of these States were defined in the enabling acts. However for some States, notably Missouri and Texas, the boundaries were changed by subsequent legislation.

Information about the Philippine Islands is omitted from this bulletin because independence was granted by the United States in 1946 (58 Stat. 625); Philippine Independence Day was made the same as that of the United States. A discussion of the acquisition of the Philippines from Spain can be found in the Geological Survey's Bulletin 817.

BOUNDARY PROBLEMS

The boundaries of the United States and of the several States were determined as a result of treaties, purchases, colonial charters, and Acts of Congress. The actual location of the boundary on the ground has frequently been a difficult problem because of lack of knowledge of the physical features of the topography by those who defined the course of the boundary, lack of clarity in the description, and errors in surveying the prescribed lines.

1 The word "conterminous" is used to refer to the 48 States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii. "Continental" United States includes Alaska.

These difficulties are understandable. The need for a determination of jurisdiction arises early in the settlement of a new country, frequently before much exploration has been done. Old maps show many mistakes easily recognizable from our knowledge of geography today. Often the remarkable thing about these maps is how accurate they are. The mapmaker knows that much data and many position determinations enter into making an accurate map. The historian has given us a picture of the vast regions unexplored in the 18th century, the lack of roads, the hostile Indians, and the small population for so large an area. It is little wonder, then, that the treatymakers found it difficult to define the limits of national sovereignty, and that it is even more difficult to mark them on the ground.

Inexact wording has frequently made ambiguous the intent of the signers of the document fixing a boundary. Disputes over the meaning of treaties have led to long negotiation and sometimes to war. Court records are full of suits brought to settle ownership of property. The same type of disagreements arise over limits of political divisions: nations, states, and even counties. Unfortunately, in the case of nations, there usually exist no courts that can make a decision and enforce it. Bitter quarrels have arisen over boundaries and some surprising claims have been advanced, such as the cry of "Fifty-four forty or fight." Yet almost always cooler judgment has prevailed and the matter was settled fairly. The surrender to the Federal Government of land in the Northwest Territory claimed by some of the Thirteen Original States illustrates the concessions that were made which permitted the orderly development of the new nation.

Surveying methods and practices have been greatly improved since the days when most of our State and national boundaries were located. Latitude and longitude determinations are made with greater accuracy today, as are angle and distance measurements. This accuracy is due

* A map of the colonial period, the "Map of the British and French dominions in North America," by Dr. John Mitchell, was possibly printed between 1762 and 1775 but retained the original publication date, 1755.

Copies of Mitchell's map were used at different stages of the negotiations in Paris be tween the American and British framers of the peace treaties of 1782-83.

John Adams wrote regarding this map: "We had before us, through the whole negotiations, a variety of maps; but it was the Mitchell's map upon which was marked out the whole boundary lines of the United States." No particular copy has so far been identified as the one thus referred to.

A copy of the Mitchell map used by John Jay, one of the American commissioners, on which a red line was drawn to indicate one of the preliminary boundary proposals, is now in the library of the New York Historical Society.

In the British Museum there is a heavily annotated copy of Mitchell's map that has on it a red boundary line, which differs from that on the Jay copy (Moore, 1898, p. 154, 161). The Library of Congress has many copies of the Mitchell map besides those published in England, including 7 French, 2 Dutch, 2 Italian, and 2 Spanish issues, as well as 40 or more reproductions of parts of the map.

Although there are many errors in this map, in 1782-83 it was the best available. Martin (1927) stated, “It appears to be the most important map in American history."

came a State by act of Congress. All these new States retained title to the vacant unappropriated lands within their limits.

Additions to the original territory-the acquisitions of Louisiana from France in 1803 and of Florida from Spain in 1819, the Texas annexation in 1845, the establishment of American title to Oregon Territory in 1846, the Mexican cession of 1848, and the Gadsden Purchase from Mexico in 1853-brought the aggregate area of the conterminous United States within its present boundaries to 3,022,387 square miles. All the vast area west of the Mississippi except the State of Texas became a part of the public domain, the United States retaining the ownership of the public lands. Congress made an exception for Texas, consenting to its admission into the Union with the provision that Texas should hold title to all vacant unappropriated lands within its limits.

The Thirteen Original States organized the Federal Union under the name of "The United States of America" by ratifying the Articles of Confederation and, subsequently, the Constitution. The boundaries of these States were not defined in the Acts of ratification, but in general the States maintained their claim to their colonial boundaries which had been established by royal decree or by agreement. Some overlapping territorial claims were not finally settled until many years later by decision of our highest court.

The other States were admitted into the Union by acts of Congress, usually upon petition of the citizens residing in the territories in question. The boundaries of these States were defined in the enabling acts. However for some States, notably Missouri and Texas, the boundaries were changed by subsequent legislation.

Information about the Philippine Islands is omitted from this bulletin because independence was granted by the United States in 1946 (58 Stat. 625); Philippine Independence Day was made the same as that of the United States. A discussion of the acquisition of the Philippines from Spain can be found in the Geological Survey's Bulletin 817.

BOUNDARY PROBLEMS

The boundaries of the United States and of the several States were determined as a result of treaties, purchases, colonial charters, and Acts of Congress. The actual location of the boundary on the ground has frequently been a difficult problem because of lack of knowledge of the physical features of the topography by those who defined the course of the boundary, lack of clarity in the description, and errors in surveying the prescribed lines.

1 The word "conterminous" is used to refer to the 48 States, excluding Alaska and Hawaii. "Continental" United States includes Alaska.

These difficulties are understandable. The need for a determination of jurisdiction arises early in the settlement of a new country, frequently before much exploration has been done. Old maps show many mistakes easily recognizable from our knowledge of geography today. Often the remarkable thing about these maps is how accurate they are. The mapmaker knows that much data and many position determinations enter into making an accurate map. The historian has given us a picture of the vast regions unexplored in the 18th century, the lack of roads, the hostile Indians, and the small population for so large an area. It is little wonder, then, that the treatymakers found it difficult to define the limits of national sovereignty, and that it is even more difficult to mark them on the ground.

Inexact wording has frequently made ambiguous the intent of the signers of the document fixing a boundary. Disputes over the meaning of treaties have led to long negotiation and sometimes to war. Court records are full of suits brought to settle ownership of property. The same type of disagreements arise over limits of political divisions: nations, states, and even counties. Unfortunately, in the case of nations, there usually exist no courts that can make a decision and enforce it. Bitter quarrels have arisen over boundaries and some surprising claims have been advanced, such as the cry of "Fifty-four forty or fight." Yet almost always cooler judgment has prevailed and the matter was settled fairly. The surrender to the Federal Government of land in the Northwest Territory claimed by some of the Thirteen Original States illustrates the concessions that were made which permitted the orderly development of the new nation.

Surveying methods and practices have been greatly improved since the days when most of our State and national boundaries were located. Latitude and longitude determinations are made with greater accuracy today, as are angle and distance measurements. This accuracy is due

"A map of the colonial period, the "Map of the British and French dominions in North America," by Dr. John Mitchell, was possibly printed between 1762 and 1775 but retained the original publication date, 1755.

Copies of Mitchell's map were used at different stages of the negotiations in Paris be tween the American and British framers of the peace treaties of 1782-83.

John Adams wrote regarding this map: "We had before us, through the whole negotiations, a variety of maps; but it was the Mitchell's map upon which was marked out the whole boundary lines of the United States." No particular copy has so far been identified as the one thus referred to.

A copy of the Mitchell map used by John Jay, one of the American commissioners, on which a red line was drawn to indicate one of the preliminary boundary proposals, is now in the library of the New York Historical Society.

In the British Museum there is a heavily annotated copy of Mitchell's map that has on it a red boundary line, which differs from that on the Jay copy (Moore, 1898, p. 154, 161). The Library of Congress has many copies of the Mitchell map besides those published in England, including 7 French, 2 Dutch, 2 Italian, and 2 Spanish issues, as well as 40 or more reproductions of parts of the map.

Although there are many errors in this map, in 1782-83 it was the best available. Martin (1927) stated, "It appears to be the most important map in American history."*

to better instruments and higher requirements. The early surveyor had to endure many hardships. Sometimes it is surprising that his work was as good as it was.

It is legally well established that a boundary or property line once marked on the ground and accepted by the interested parties becomes the true line, whether or not it follows the written description. The surveyor who reruns the line must find where it is rather than move it to conform to the wording of the original document (148 U.S. 503; 103 U.S. 316; 137 U.S. 584; 267 U.S. 39). Conflicting boundary claims and lack of knowledge as to the exact location of the boundary have presented problems to the courts and to the surveyor until very recently. As late as 1936 a commission made a report to the Supreme Court as a basis for its decision on the Vermont-New Hampshire boundary.

The following discussion on how boundaries are established and changed, on the boundaries of the United States and additions to its territory, and on the formation of the various States and the establishment of their boundaries are presented for their historical and geographical interest and for a reference to those who do not care to take time to go to original source material. Certain factual information concerning areas, altitudes, and geography is presented at the end of the book with the thought that it is of general interest and is readily available to the Geological Survey.

HOW BOUNDARIES ARE ESTABLISHED AND CHANGED Boundaries between countries are established by treaties made by the sovereign powers concerned (Brigham, 1919, p. 201–219).

A boundary between two States of the United States may be changed by agreement of the State legislatures, but this agreement must be approved by Congress. The U.S. Congress cannot change a State boundary without the consent of the State, nor can two States by mutual agreement change their common boundary without the consent of Congress. The consent of Congress to a change in a boundary need not be granted by a special act but may be inferred from subsequent legislation. Several times Congress has given its consent

3 U.S. Supreme Court Repts., 11 Wallace, p. 39-59 (78 U.S. 39-59); 148 U.S. 502 et al. (Prior to 1875 the volumes of the U.S. Supreme Court reports were designated by the name of the official reporter and a number. Some sets of these early reports are now numbered serially also. In order of issue there are 4 reports by Dallas (serial Nos. 1-4). covering the years 1790 to 1800; 9 by Cranch (serial Nos. 5-13), 1801 to 1815: 12 by Wheaton (serial Nos. 14-25), 1816 to 1827; 16 by Peters (serial Nos. 26-41), 1828 to 1842; 24 by Howard (serial Nos. 42-65), 1843 to 1860; 2 by Black (serial Nos. 66-67), 1861 to 1862; and 23 by Wallace (serial Nos. 68-90), 1863 to 1874. Beginning with No. 91, for 1875, the volumes have been numbered serially only. References to these reports are customarily made thus: "6 Cranch 24," "10 Howard 40." The serial number of the volume is sometimes given also. Beginning with v. 91, the references are given in the form "97 U.S. 271," meaning v. 97 of the U.S. Supreme Court reports, p. 271, the page number always being given last.)