abolition of the capitulations in Egypt about July, 1872. CAPPADOCIA, Asia Minor. Its early history is involved in obscurity. Pharnaces said to have founded the kingdom B.C. 744 Macedon; the king, Ariarathes I., aged 82, crucified. Recovers its independence CAPE ST. VINCENT (S. W. Portugal). Cappadocia conquered by Perdiccas, regent of Sir George Rooke, with twenty-three ships of war, and the Turkey fleet, was attacked by Tourville, with 160 ships, off Cape St. Vincent, when twelve English and Dutch men of war, and eighty merchantmen, were captured or destroyed by the French, 16 June, 1693.-Sir John Jervis, with the Mediterranean fleet of fifteen sail, defeated the Spanish fleet of twenty-seven ships of the line off this cape, taking four ships and sinking others, 14 Feb. 1797. For this victory sir John was raised to the peerage, as earl St. Vincent. Nelson was engaged in this battle. Near this cape the fleet of dom Pedro, under admiral Charles Napier, captured dom Miguel's fleet, 5 July, 1833. CAPETIANS, the third race of the kings of France, named from Hugo Capet, count of Paris and Orleans, who seized the throne on the death of Louis V., called the Indolent, 987. Hénault. The first line of the house of Capet ended with Charles IV., in 1328, when Philip VI. of Valois ascended the throne; see France. CAPILLARITY (the rising of liquids in small tubes, and the ascent of the sap in plants) is said to have been first observed by Niccolo Aggiunti of Pisa, 1600-35. The theory has been examined by Newton, La Place, and others. Dr. T. Young's theory was put forth in 1805, and Mr. Wertheim's researches in 1857. CAPITAL PUNISHMENT, see Death. CAPITATION TAX, see Poll-tax. CAPITOL, said to have been so called from a human head (caput) found when digging the foundations of the fortress of Rome, on Mons Tarpeius. Here a temple was built to Jupiter Capitolinus. The foundation was laid by Tarquinius Priscus, 616 B.C.; the building was continued by Servius Tullius; completed by Tarquinius Superbus, but not dedicated till 507 B.C. by the consul Horatius. It was destroyed by lightning 6 July, 183; burnt during the civil wars, 83; rebuilt by Sylla, and dedicated again by Lutatius Catulus, 69; again burnt A.D. 69, 80; rebuilt 70, 82; sacked by Genseric, June, 455. The Roman consuls made large donations to this temple, and the emperor Augustus bestowed on it 2000 pounds weight of gold, of which metal the roof was composed: its thresholds were of brass, and its interior was decorated with shields of solid silver. The Capitoline games, instituted 387 B.C. to commemorate the deliverance from the Gauls, were revived by Domitian, A.D. 86. The Campidoglio contains palaces of the senators, erected on the site of the Capitol by Michael Angelo soon after 1546. Conquered by Mithridates of Pontus Ariarathes VI. murdered by Mithridates Eupator: He is several times expelled by Mithridates, &c., Crassus. Ariarathes VII. deposed by Antony. Recovered by the emperor Basil I. A.D. 15 17 515 717 876 . 1074 1360 Ulric Zwinglius was slain in a conflict between CAPPEL (Switzerland). Here the reformer the catholics and the men of Zurich, 11 Oct. 1531. CAPRI (Caprex), an island near Naples, the sumptuous residence of Augustus, and particularly of Tiberius, memorable for the debaucheries he committed during his last years, 27-37. Capri was taken by sir Sydney Smith, 12 May, 1806. CAPS, see Hats. CAPS AND HATS. About 1738, Sweden was much distracted by two factions thus named, the former in the interest of the Russians, and the latter in that of the French. They were broken up and the names prohibited by Gustavus III. in 1771, who desired to exclude foreign influence. His assassination by Ankarstrom, 16 March, 1792, set aside all his plans for the improvement of Sweden. said to have been invented, but more probably was CAPSTAN, used to work ships' anchors, is only improved, by sir Samuel Morland, who died 30 Dec. 1695. CAPTAIN, H.M.'s iron-clad turret ship, capsized during a squall, 12.15 A.M., 7 Sept., 1870. capt. Hugh Burgoyne, capt. Cowper Coles, who designed the vessel, and 469 persons perished. See under Navy of England. Subscriptions for relief of the widows and orphans of the lost up to 17 Nov., May, 1871, about 55,000l.; 25 June, 1871, about 34,8941.; 3 Dec., 38,0041.; 31 Dec., about 46,000/.; CAPITULARIES, the laws of the Frankish kings, commencing with Charlemagne (801). Col-55,7007. lections have been published by Baluze (1677) and others. CAPITULATIONS: a name given to the judicial rights granted by treaties to foreign consuls in Turkey. After many years' opposition, the sultan addressed a memorial to the sovereigns of Europe, in June, 1869; and modifications were agreed to, April, 1870. The sultan decided on the CAPUA (Naples), capital of Campania, took the part of Hannibal when his army wintered here after the battle of Cannæ, 216 B.C., and it is said became enervated. In 211, when the Romans retook the city, they scourged and beheaded all the surviving senators; the others had poisoned themselves after a banquet previous to the surrender of the city. Only two persons escaped; one woman SO CAPUCHIN FRIARS, Franciscans, named from wearing a Capuchon, or cowl hanging down upon their backs. The order was founded by Matthew Baschi, about 1525; and established by the pope Clement VII. 1529. The capuchin confessors of the queen Henrietta introduced here 1630, were imprisoned by the parliament 1642. CAR. The invention is ascribed to Erichthonius of Athens, about 1486 B.C. Covered cars (currus arcuati) were used by the Romans. The lectica (a soft cushioned car), next invented, gave place to the carpentum, a two-wheeled car, with an arched covering, hung with costly cloth. Still later were the carruce, in which the officers of state rode. Triumphal cars, introduced by Tarquin the Elder, were formed like a throne. CARACAS (S. America), part of Venezuela, discovered by Columbus 1498. It was reduced by arms, and assigned as property to the Welsers, German merchants, by Charles V.; but for their tyranny, they were dispossessed in 1550, and a crown governor appointed. The province declared its independence, 9 May, 1810. In the city Leon de Caracas, on 26 March, 1812, nearly 12,000 persons perished by an earthquake; see l'enezuela. CARBERRY HILL (S. Scotland). Here lord Hume and the confederate barons dispersed the royal army under Bothwell, and took Mary queen of Scots prisoner, 15 June 1567. Bothwell ded. 1823. On exposing the liquid to the air it becomes solid, resembling snow, through vaporisation. CARDIFF CASTLE (S. Wales). Here Robert, duke of Normandy, eldest son of William I., is said to have been imprisoned from 1106 till his death 10 Feb. 1135. CARDIGAN BAY, see Fishguard. CARDINALS, princes in the church of Rome, the council of the pope, and the conclave or "sacred college," at first were the principal priests or incumbents of the parishes in Rome, and said to have been called cardinales in 853. They began to assume the exclusive power of electing the popes about 1179. They first wore the red hat to remind them that they ought to shed their blood for rechurch by Innocent IV., 1243 or 1245. Paul II. ligion, if required, and were declared princes of the gave the scarlet habit, 1464; and Urban VIII. the title of Eminence in 1623 or 1630. In 1586 Sixtus V. fixed their number at 70; but there are generally vacancies. In 1860 there were 69 cardinals; in 1864, 59; in Nov. 1867, 52;-in 1873, 5 of the order of bishops; 34 priests; & deacons; 45 in all. Nine cardinals (one a Bonaparte) were made, 13 March, | 1868.* CARDROSS CASE, see Trials, 1861. CARDS (referred to the Chinese, Hindoos, and Romans), are said to have been invented in France in 1391, to amuse Charles IV. when depressed. Piquet and all the early names are French.-Cards first taxed in England 1710. 428,000 packs were stamped in 1775, and 986,000 in 1800. In 1825, the duty being then 28. 6d. per pack, less than duty was reduced to 18., and 310,854 packs paid 150,000 packs were stamped; but in 1827 the stamp duty in 1830. Duty was paid on 239,200 packs in CARBOLIC ACID (or phenic acid), obtained the year ending 5 Jan. 1840; and on near 300,000, by the distillation of pit-coal, is a powerful anti-year ending 5 Jan. 1850. By an act passed in 1862 septic. It is largely manufactured for medical purthe duty on cards was reduced to 3d. per pack, and poses, and has been advantageously used at Carlisle the sellers were required to take out a licence. and Exeter in the deodorisation of sewage (1860-1); and as a disinfectant during the prevalence of cholera in London in 1866. It was successfully used for embalming by professor Seely in 1868. CARBON was shown to be a distinct element by Lavoisier in 1788. He proved the diamond to be its purest form, and converted it into carbonic acid gas by combustion. CARBONARI (charcoal-burners), a powerful secret society in Italy, which derived its origin, according to some, from the Waldenses, and which became prominent early in the present century. It aimed at the expulsion of foreigners from Italy, and the establishment of civil and religious liberty. In March, 1820, it is said that 650,000 joined the society, and an insurrection soon after broke out in Naples, general Pépé taking the command. The king Ferdinand made political concessions, but the influence of the allied sovereigns at Laybach led Ferdinand to annul them and suppress the liberal party, Jan. 1821, when the Carbonari were denounced as traitors. The society spread in France, and doubtless hastened the revolutions in 1830 and 1848. CARBONIC ACID GAS, a gaseous compound of carbon and oxygen, found in the air, and a product of combustion, respiration, and fermentation. The Grotto del Cane yields 200,000 lbs. per annum. No animal can breathe this gas. The briskness of champagne, beer, &c., is due to its presence. It was liquefied by atmospheric pressure by Faraday in CARIA (Asia Minor), was conquered by Cyrus, 546 B.C.; by Dercyllidas, a Lacedæmonian, 397; his successor Hecatomnus became king, 385 B.C.; for his son Mausolus the Mausoleum was erected (which see). Caria was annexed by the Romans, 129 B.C. It is now part of the Turkish empire. The CARIBBEE ISLANDS, see West Indies. CARICATURES. Bufalmaco, an Italian painter, about 1330, drew caricatures and put labels to the mouths of his figures with sentences. modern caricatures of Gilray, Rowlandson, H. B. (John Doyle ID = HB), Richard Doyle, John Leech, and John Tenniel are justly celebrated. The well-known "Punch" was first published in 1841. The most eminent writers of fiction of the day and others (Douglas Jerrold, Thackeray, A'Becket, Professor E. Forbes, &c.) contributed to this amusing periodical. See Punch. CARIGNAN, a small town about twelve miles from Sedan, department of Ardennes, N.E. France. At the plain of Douzy near this place and the encampment of Vaux, a part of MacMahon's army, retreating before the Germans, turned round and made a stand, 31 Aug. 1870. After a long severe engagement, in which the same positions were * English Cardinals: Henry Stuart, created 1747: Charles Erskine, 1801; Thomas Weld, 1830; Charles Acton, 1839; Nicholas Wiseman, 30 Sept. 1850-65. taken and retaken several times, the Germans turned the flank of their enemies, who were compelled to fall back upon Sedan, where they were finally overcome, I Sept. CARINTHIA, a Bavarian duchy, annexed to the territories of the duke of Austria, 1336. CARISBROOKE CASTLE (Isle of Wight), said to have been a British and Roman fortress, was taken 530 by Cerdic, founder of the kingdom of the West Saxons. Its Norman character has been ascribed to William Fitz-Osborne, earl of Hereford in William I.'s time. Here Charles I. was imprisoned Nov. 1647 to Nov. 1648; and here his daughter Elizabeth, aged fifteen, died, too probably of a broken heart, 8 Sept. 1650. CARIZMIANS (fierce shepherds living near the Caspian), having been expelled by the Tartars, invaded Syria in 1243. The union of the sultans of Aleppo, Hems, and Damascus was insufficient to stem the torrent, and the Christian military orders were nearly exterminated in a single battle in 1244. In Oct. they took Jerusalem. They were totally defeated in two battles in 1247. CARLAVEROCK CASTLE (S. Scotland), taken by Edward I., July, 1300, the subject of a contemporary poem published, with illustrations, by sir Harris Nicolas in 1828. CARLISLE (Cumberland), a frontier town of England, wherein for many ages a strong garrison was kept. Just below this town the famous Picts' wall began, which crossed the whole island to Newcastle-upon-Tyne, and here also ended the great Roman highway. Of the great church, called St. Mary's, a large part was built by David, king of Scotland, who held Cumberland, Westmoreland, and Northumberland, from the crown of England. The castle, destroyed by the Danes, 875, restored in 1092 by William II., was the prison of Mary queen of Scots in 1568.-Taken by the parliamentary forces in 1645, and by the young Pretender, 15 Nov. 1745: retaken by the duke of Cumberland, 30 Dec. same year. The see was erected by Henry I. in 1132, and made suffragan to York. The cathedral had been founded a short time previously, by Walter, deputy for William Rufus. It was almost ruined by Cromwell, 1648, and partially repaired after the Restoration. It was reopened in 1856 after renovation, costing 15,000l. The see has been held by one lord chancellor and two lord treasurers; it is valued in the king's books at 530l. 48. 11d. per annum. Present income 4500l. Rory Oge O'Moore, in 1577; again to the parliamentary forces, in 1650. Here the royal troops routed the insurgents 24 May, 1798. CARLOWITZ, Austria. Here was concluded a treaty of peace between Turkey and the allies, Germany, Russia, Poland, and Venice, 26 Jan. 1699, prince Eugene at Zenta, 11 Sept. 1697, by which in consequeuce of the great defeat of the Turks by Hungary was finally secured to Austria. CARLSBAD (or Charles's Bath), in Bohemia, the celebrated springs, said to have been discovered by the emperor Charles IV. in 1370.-On 1 Aug. 1819, a congress was held here, when the great powers decreed measures to repress the liberal press, &c. CARLSRUHE, capital of Baden, built by margrave Charles William, 1715. here was suppressed by Prussian aid, June 1849, A revolution and the grand-duke returned 18 Aug. CARLTON CLUB, Pall Mall (Conservative), established by the duke of Wellington and others, 1831-2; present house opened 1855. CARMAGNOLE, a Piedmontese song and dance, popular in France during the reign of terror, 1793-4. The chorus was "Dansons la Carmagnole: vive le son du canon!" CARMATHIANS, a Mahometan sect. Carmath, a Shiite, about 890, assumed the title of "the guide, the director," &c., including that of the representative of Mahomet, St. John the Baptist, and the angel Gabriel. His followers subdued Bahrein in 900, and devastated the east. Dissensions arose amongst themselves,. and their power soon passed away. CARMELITES, or WHITE FRIARS, of Mount Carmel, one of the four orders of mendi1156, and settled in France in 1252. Hénault. cants with austere rules, founded by Berthold about Their rules were modified about 1540. They claimed asteries in England, and a precinct in London succession from Elijah. They had numerous monWhitefriars to this day, after a community of their without the Temple, west of Blackfriars, is called order, founded there in 1245. A Carmelite church at Kensington was founded by archbishop Manning, July, 1865. extending along the whole coast of Coromandel. CARNATIC, a district of Southern Hindostan, Hyder Ali entered the Carnatic with 80,000 troops, in 1780, and was defeated by the British under sir Eyre Coote, I July, and 27 Aug. 1781; and decisively overthrown 2 June, 1782. The Carnatic quired entire authority over the Carnatic by treaty, was overrun by Tippoo in 1790. The British ac31 July, 1801; see India. CARNATION, so called from the original Several varieties were first planted in England by the Flemings, about 1567. Stow. CARLISLE ADMINISTRATION, see species being of a flesh colour (carnis, of flesh). Halifax. CARLISTS, see Spain, 1830-40 and 1872-3. CARLOVINGIANS, OR CAROLINGIANS, the second dynasty of the French kings, 752-987. Charles Martel (715-741) and Pepin his son (741-752), were mayors of the palace. The latter became king 752; see France. CARLOW (S. E. Ireland). The castle, erected by John, 1180, surrendered after a desperate siege to CARNEIAN GAMES, observed in many Grecian cities, particularly at Sparta (instituted about 675 B.C. in honour of Apollo, surnamed Carneus), lasted nine days. CARNIVAL, (Carni vale), Italian, i. e. Flesh catholic countries at Shrove tide, or beginning of farewell!), a festival time in Italy and other Lent. CAROLINA (N. America). Said to have been discovered by Sebastian Cabot in 1498, or by De Leon in 1512. Raleigh formed a settlement at Roanoke in June, 1585, which was broken up in 1586. About 850 English settled here about 1660; and Carolina was granted to lord Clarendon and others in 1663. The cultivation of rice was introduced by governor Smith in 1695, and subsequently cotton. A constitution drawn up by John Locke was abandoned. The province was divided into North and South in 1729; see America. The Carolinas being slave states, great excitement prevailed in them in Nov. 1860, on account of Abraham Lincoln's election to the presidency of the United States, he being strongly opposed to slavery. South Carolina began the secession from the United States, 20 Dec. 1860: North Carolina followed, 21 May, 1861; see United States, 1861-5. Both readmitted to the Union 25 June, 1868. CAROLINE ISLANDS were discovered by the Spaniards in the reign of Charles II. 1686. CARP, a fresh-water or pond fish, was, it is said, first brought to these countries about 1525. Walton. It is mentioned by lady Juliana Berners in her book printed 1496. CARPETS are of ancient use in the East. The manufacture of woollen carpets was introduced into France from Persia, in the reign of Henry IV., between 1589 and 1610. Some artisans who had quitted France in disgust established the English carpet manufacture, about 1750. A cork-carpet company was formed in 1862. CARPI (N. Italy). Here prince Eugene and the Imperialists defeated the French 9 July, 1701. CARPOCRATIANS, followers of Carpocrates, a Gnostic, in the 2nd century. CARRACK or KARRACK (Italian, Caracca), a large ship in the middle ages. The Santa Anna, the property of the knights of St. John, of about 1700 tons, sheathed with lead, was built at Nice about 1530. It was literally a floating fortress, and aided Charles V. in taking Tunis in 1535. It contained a crew of 300 men and 50 pieces of artillery. CARRIAGES. Erichthonius of Athens is said to have produced the first chariot about 1486 B.C. Rude carriages were known in France in the reign of Henry II. A.D. 1547; in England in 1555, Henry IV. of France had one without straps or springs. They were made in England in the reign of Elizabeth, and then called whirlicotes. The duke of Buckingham, in 1619, drove six horses; and the earl of Northumberland, in rivalry, drove eight. Carriages were let for hire in Paris, in 1650, at the Hôtel Fiacre: hence the name, fiacre; see Car, Cabriolets, Coaches and Licence duty. Annual licence duty for carriages; 4 wheels, 27. 28.; under 4 cwt. or less than 4 wheels, 158. CARRICKFERGUS (Antrim, Ireland). Its castle is supposed to have been built by Hugh de Lacy in 1178. The town surrendered to the duke of Schomberg 28 Aug. 1689. The castle, surrendered to the French admiral Thurot, Feb. 1760; see Thurot. CARRIERS' ACT, 11 Geo. IV. & 1 Will. IV. c. 68, 1830. CARROCIUM, a vehicle containing a crucifix and a banner, usually accompanied Italian armies in the middle ages. The Milanese lost theirs at Cortenuova, 27 Nov. 1237. CARRON IRONWORKS, on the banks of the Carron, in Stirlingshire, established in 1760. The works in 1852 employed about 1600 men. Here since 1776 have been made the pieces of ordnance called carronades or smashers. CARROTS and other edible roots were imported from Holland and Flanders, about 1510. CARTES DE VISITE. The small photographic portraits thus termed are said to have been first taken at Nice, by M. Ferrier, in 1857. The duke of Parma had his portrait placed upon his visiting cards, and his example was soon followed in Paris and London. by René des Cartes, the French philosopher, in CARTESIAN DOCTRINES, promulgated 1637. His metaphysical principle is, "I think, therefore I am;" his physical principle, "Nothing exists but substance." He accounts for all physical phenomena on his theory of vortices, motions excited by God, the source of all motion. He was born 1596, and died at Stockholm, the guest of queen Christina, in 1650. CARTHAGE (N. coast of Africa near Tunis), founded by Dido or Elissa, 878 B.C. (869, Blair; 826, Niebuhr). She fled from her brother Pygmalion, king of Tyre, who had killed her husband, and took refuge in Africa. Carthage disputed the empire of the world with Rome, which occasioned the Punic wars. The Carthaginians bore the character of a faithless people, hence the term Punic faith. Cato the censor (about 146 B.C.) ended his speeches in the senate with Carthago delenda! Carthage must be destroyed!" Many councils held here, A.D, 200-535. Hasdrubal assassinated 229 220 . 219 218 218 Hannibal conquers Spain, as far as the Iberus Publius Scipio carries war into Spain and takes New Hasdrubal, Hannibal's brother, arrives with an army; Hannibal recalled to Carthage The third Punic war; Scipio invades Africa 210 . 207 206 204 . 203 . 202 201 . 149 CARTHAGENA, or NEW CARTHAGE (S.E. Spain), built by Hasdrubal, the Carthaginian general, 242 B.C.; taken by Scipio, 210. The modern Carthagena was taken by a British force under sir John Leake. June, 1706; retaken by the duke of Berwick, Nov.-CARTHAGENA, in Columbia, South America, was taken by sir Francis Drake in 1585 pillaged by the French buccaneers in 1697; bombarded by admiral Vernon in March, 1741; and unsuccessfully besieged, April, 1741. CARTHUSIANS, a religious order (springing from the Benedictines) founded by Bruno of Cologne, who retired with six companions about 1084, to Chartreuse (which see), in the mountains of Dauphiné. Their austere rules were formed by Basil VII., their general. They appeared in England about 1180, and a monastery was founded by sir William Manny, 1371, on the site of the present Charter-house, London; see Charter-house. The Carthusian powder, of father Simon, at Chartreuse, was first compounded about 1715. CARTOONS, large chalk drawings preparatory to oil painting. Those of RAPHAEL (twenty-five in number) were designed (for tapestries) in the chambers of the Vatican under Julius II. and Leo X. about 1510 to 1516. The seven preserved were purchased in Flanders by Rubens for Charles I. of England, for Hampton-court palace in 1629. They were removed to South Kensington 28 April, 1865. The tapestries executed at Arras from these designs are at Rome. They were twice carried away by invaders, in 1526 and 1798, and were restored in 1815.-The Cartoons for the British Houses of Parliament were exhibited in July, 1843. RAPHAEL'S CARTOONS. 1. The Miraculous draught of Fishes. 2. The Charge to Peter. 3. Peter and John healing the Lame at the Gate of the Temple. 4. The Death of Ananias. 5. Elymas the Sorcerer, struck with blindness. CARVING, see Sculptures. CASH-PAYMENTS, see Bank of England. CASHEL (Tipperary, Ireland). Cormack Cuillinan, king and bishop of Cashel, was the reputed founder or restorer of the cathedral, 901. In 1152, bishop Donat O'Danergan was invested with the pall; see Pallium. Cashel was valued in the king's books, 29 Henry VIII. at 66l. 138. 4d. Irish money. By the Church Temporalities act, 1833, it ceased to be archiepiscopal, and was joined to Waterford and Lismore. CASHMERE, in the valley of the Himalayas; was subdued by the Mahometans under Akbar, in 1586; by the Affghans in 1752; by the Sikhs, 1819; end ceded to the British in 1846, who gave it to the Maharajah Gholab Singh, as sovereign. The true Cashmere shawls, first brought to England in 1666, are well imitated at Bradford and Huddersfield. Shawls of Thibetian wool, for the omrahs, cost 150 rupees each, about 1650. CASSANO (N. Italy). Site of an indecisive conflict between prince Eugene of Savoy and the French, 16 Aug. 1705. CASSATION, COURT OF, the highest court of appeal in France, was established 10 Nov. 1790, by the national assembly. CASSEL, formerly the capital of Hesse-Cassel, coming the refuge of French protestants after the Central Germany, acquired importance through berevocation of the edict of Nantes, 1685. It was the capital of Jerome Bonaparte, king of Westphalia, 1807-13, and Wilhelmshohe, a neighbouring castle, became the residence of Napoleon III. after his surrender to the king of Prussia, 2 Sept. 1870, arriving at 9.35 p.m. 5 Sept. He went to England in 1871. CASSITERIDES; see Scilly Isles. CASTEL FIDARDO, near Ancona, Central Italy. Near here general Lamoricière and the papal army of 11,000 men were totally defeated by the Sardinian general, Cialdini, 18 Sept. 1860. Lamoricière with a few horsemen. fled to Ancona, then besieged. On 29 Sept. he and the garrison surrendered, but were shortly after set at liberty. In the laws of Menu (see Menu), the Hindus are CASTES, a distinct section of society in India. divided into the Brahmans, or sacerdotal class; the Kshatrya or Chuttree, military class; the Vaisya, or commercial class; and the Sudras, or sooders, servile class. CASTIGLIONE (N. Italy). Here the French under Augereau defeated the Austrians, commanded by Wurmser, with great loss, 5 Aug. 1796. CASTILE (Central Spain). A Gothic government was established here about Soo.-Roderick, count of Castile, 860; Ferdinand, a count, became king, 1035. Ferdinand, king of Arragon, married Isabella, queen of Castile, in 1474, and formed one monarchy, 1479; see Spain. CASTILLEJOS (N. Africa). Here on 1 Jan. 1860, was fought the first decisive action in the war between Spain and Morocco. General Prim, after a vigorous resistance, repulsed the Moors under Muley Abbas, and advanced towards Tetuan. CASTILLON, Guienne (S. France). Here the army of Henry VI. of England was defeated by that of Charles VII. of France, and an end put to the English dominion in France, Calais alone remaining, 17 or 23 July, 1453. Talbot, earl of Shrewsbury, was killed. troops, under Humbert, landed at Killala, and asCASTLEBAR (Ireland). About 1100 French sisted by Irish insurgents here, compelled the king's troops under Lake to retreat, 27 Aug. 1798; but were compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck, 8 Sept. CASTLEPOLLARD (Ireland). At an affray at a fair here between some peasantry and a body of police, thirteen persons lost their lives, and many were wounded, 23 May, 1831. CASTLES. The castle of the Anglo-Saxon was a tower keep, either round or square, and ascended by a flight of steps in front. William I. erected 48 strong castles. Several hundreds, built |