by permission of Stephen, between 1135 and 1154, were demolished by Henry II. 1154. Many were dismantled in the civil wars. Richborough, Studfall, and Burgh are existing specimens of Roman castles. CAT. The generally received opinion that our domestic cat is derived from the European wild cat is doubted by Mr. T. Bell (1827). Rüppell (died 1794) found a wild cat in Nubia, whose conformation agreed with that of the Egyptian cat mummies. Cats fetched high prices in the middle ages, and were protected by law in Wales, about 948. Great cat shows were held at the Crystal Palace 13 July and 2 Dec. 1871; and 26-29 Oct. 1872. CATACOMBS. The early depositories of the They are said to have baptized their dead, forbidden marriage, and mingled the bread and wine in the Lord's supper with the blood of young children. CATAPULTÆ, military engines of the crossbow kind, for throwing huge stones as well as darts and arrows; invented by Dionysius, the tyrant of Syracuse, 399 B.C. CATEAU CAMBRESIS (N. France), where, on 2, 3 April, 1559, peace was concluded between. Elizabeth of England. France ceded Savoy, Corsica, Henry II. of France, Philip II. of Spain, and and nearly 200 forts in Italy and the Low Countries to Philip. piled in the 8th or 9th century. CATECHISMS are said to have been comLuther's were church of England in the first book of Edward VI. published 1520 and 1529. The catechism of the 7 March, 1549, contained merely the baptismal ordered the bishops to add an explication of the Lord's prayer, with explanations; but James I. sacraments, 1612. The catechism of the council of Trent was published in 1566; those of the Assembly of Divines at Westminster 1647 and 1648. dead. The first Christians at Rome met for worship in the catacombs; and here are said to have been the tombs of the apostles Peter and Paul. Belzoni in 1815-18 explored many Egyptian catacombs, built 3000 years ago. He brought to Eng-Yow, the creed, the ten commandments, and the land the sarcophagus of Psammetichus, formed of oriental alabaster, exquisitely sculptured. In the Parisian catacombs (formerly stone quarries), human remains from the cemetery of the Innocents were deposited in 1785; and many of the victims of the revolution in 1792-4, are interred in them.-On 31 May, 1578, some labourers digging on the Via Salaria, two miles from Rome, discovered the celebrated catacombs of which an account with engravings was published by Antonio Bosio, in his "Roma Sotteranea (1632), and by Aringhi (1659), and others. John Evelyn saw them in 1645. Elaborate accounts have been published recently by De Rossi; an abstract of whose researches will be found in the "Roma Sotteranea" of the Rev. J. S. Northcote and W. R. Brownlow, 1869. CATALONIA (E. Spain), was settled by the Goths and Alani, about 409; conquered by the Saracens, 712; recovered by Pepin, and by Charlemagne (788). It formed part of the Spanish marches and the territory of the count of Barcelona (which see). The natives were able seamen: being frequently unruly, their peculiar privileges were abolished in 1714. CATALYTIC FORCE. The discovery in 1819 by Thenard of the decomposition of peroxide of hydrogen by platinum, and by Döbereiner in 1825 of its property to ignite a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen, formed the groundwork of the doctrine of catalytic force, also termed "action of contact or presence," put forth by Berzelius and Mitscherlich. Their view has not been adopted by Liebig and other chemists. CATAMARANS (or carcases), fire-machines for destroying ships; tried in vain by sir Sydney Smith, 2 Oct. 1804, on the Boulogne flotilla destined by Bonaparte to invade England. CATANIA (the ancient Catana), a town near Etna, Sicily, was founded by a colony from Chalcis, about 753 B.C. Ceres had a temple here, open to none but women. Catania was almost totally overthrown by an eruption of Etna in 1669 and in 1693 was nearly swallowed up by an earthquake: in a moment more than 18,000 of its inhabitants were buried in the ruins. An earthquake did great damage, 22 Feb. 1817. In Aug. 1862, the town was held by Garibaldi and his volunteers, in opposition to the Italian government. He was captured on 29 Aug. CATAPHRYGIANS, heretics in the second century, who followed the errors of Montanus. CATHARI (from the Greek katharos, pure), a name given to the Novatians (about 251), Montanists, and other early Christian sects. See Puritans. CATHAY, an old name for China. CATHEDRAL, the chief church of a diocese, as containing the cathedra, or seat of the bishop, obtained the name in the 10th century. A conference of the higher clergy to consider cathedral institutions, was held at Lambeth, I March, 1872. CATHOLIC MAJESTY. This title was given by pope Gregory 111. to Alphonso I. of Spain, 739, and to Ferdinand V. and his queen in 1474 by Innocent VIII. on account of their zeal for religion, and their establishment of the Inquisition. CATHOLICS, see Roman Catholics. gius Catiline, a dissolute Roman noble, having been CATILINE'S CONSPIRACY. Lucius Ser CAT ISLE, see Salvador. CATO, SUICIDE OF. Considering freedom as that which alone sustains the dignity of man," and unable to survive the independence of his country, Cato stabbed himself at Utica, 46 B.C. CATO-STREET CONSPIRACY: a gang of desperate men, headed by Arthur Thistlewood, assembled in Cato-street, Edgware-road, and proposed the assassination of the ministers of the crown, at a cabinet dinner. They were betrayed and arrested 23 Feb. 1820, and Thistlewood, Brunt, Davidson, Ings, and Tidd, were executed as traitors, on I May. CATTI, a German tribe, attacked but not subdued by the Romans A.D. 15, and 84; absorbed by the Franks, 3rd century. CATTLE. The importation of horned cattle from Ireland and Scotland into England was prohibited by a law, 1663; but the export of cattle from Ireland became very extensive. In 1842 the importation of cattle into England from foreign countries was subjected to a moderate duty, and in 1846 they were made duty free; and since then the numbers imported have enormously increased. Horned cattle imported into the United Kingdom 1849, 53,480; 1853, 125,523; 1855 (war), 97,527 1860, 104,569; 1805, 283,271; 1806, 237,739; 1867, 177,948; 1868, 136,688; 1869, 220,190; 1870, 202,172. See Smithfield, Metropolitan Cattle-market, and Foreign Cattle-market. 1745-56 A cattle plague began in Hungary; extended over Western Europe, destroying 1 million cattle 1711-14 A severe cattle plague raged in England and west Europe (about 3 million cattle perish) The privy council ordered diseased beasts to be shot, and their skins destroyed; granting moderate compensation 12 March, 1746 Great disease among foreign cattle; excluded from this country by prohibitions April, 1857 The cattle plague appears at Laycock's dairy, Barnsbury, London, N.; rapidly spreads, about 24 June, 1865 beasts had been attacked; 12,680 died; 27,432 8,998 slaughtered, up to . 21 Oct. 1865 A royal commission to inquire into the causes of cattle plague and suggest remedies met first, 10 Oct.; report of majority considered the disease to have been imported, and recommend slaughter of animals, and stringent prohibition of passage of cattle across public roads, &c., 31 Oct. 1865; second report, 6 Feb.; 3rd report I May, 1866 Orders in council for regulating the cattle plague (in conformity with the act of 1850), 23 Nov. and 16 Dec. 1865; and . 20 Jan. 1866 Disease raging; official report; cattle attacked, 120,740; killed, 16,742; died, 73,750; recovered, 14,162; unaccounted for, 16,086 1 Feb. Cattle disease acts passed 20 Feb. and 10 Aug. Orders in council making uniform repressive measures throughout the country The disease materially abates 27 March, April, " 2 Feb. 1867 June, July, Contagious diseases (animals) act amended and continued Aug. New general orders issued No case reported to the privy council' 3 Aug. Order of council permitting cattle to be removed from the metropolis 25 July, 1868 Aug. 1869 Aug. 1869-Dec. 1870 June, July, 1871 9 Sept. 1870 England Increase Disease appears at Kaiserslautern, rear of the German army; cautionary regulations promulgated by the privy council about 3 Aug. Cattle plague appears at Pocklington, Yorkshire; CATTLE SHOW, see Smithfield. CAUCASUS, a lofty mountain, a continuation of the ridge of Mount Taurus, between the Euxine and Caspian seas. In Mythology, Prometheus was said to have been tied on the top of Caucasus by Jupiter, and continually devoured by vultures (1548 B.C.) The passes near the mountain were called Caucasie Porte, and it is supposed that through them the Sarmatians or Huns invaded the provinces of Rome, A.D. 447; see Circassia. private meeting of the leading politicians of a party CAUCUS. An American term applied to a to agree upon the plans to be pursued during an election or session of congress. This institution is now a very powerful antagonist to public opinion. The word is said to be derived from "ship"-caulkers' meetings. A "caucus club" is mentioned by John Adams, in 1763. Bartlett. Similar meetings are occasionally held in London by conservatives and liberals; one was held by Mr. Gladstone respecting the ballot bill, 6 July, 1871. CAUDINE FORKS, according to Livy, the Furcula Caudine (in Samnium, S. Italy), were two narrow defiles or gorges, united by a range of mountains on each side. The Romans went through the on re first pass, but found the second blocked ructed. turning they found the first similarly Being thus hemmed in by the Samnites, under the command of C. Pontius, they surrendered at discretion, 321 B.C. (after a fruitless contest, according to Cicero). The Roman senate broke the treaty. CAULIFLOWER, said to have been brought from Cyprus to England about 1603. CAUSTIC IN PAINTING, a method of burning colours into wood or ivory, invented by Gausias of Sicyon. He painted his mistress Glycere sitting on the ground making garlands with flowers; the picture was hence named Stephanoplocon. It was bought by Lucullus for two talents, 335 B.c. Pliny. CAUTIONARY TOWNS (Holland), (the Briel, Flushing, Rammekins, and Walcheren), were given to queen Elizabeth in 1585 as security for their repaying her for assistance in their struggle with Spain. They were restored to the Dutch republic by James I. in 1616. CAVALIER. The appellation given to the supporters of the king during the civil war, from a number of gentlemen forming themselves into a body-guard for the king in 1641. They were opposed to the Roundheads, or parliamentarians. CAVALRY. Used by the Canaanites in war, 1450 B.C. (Josh. xi. 4). Attached to each Roman legion was a body of 300 horse, in ten turmæ; the commander always a veteran.-The Persians had 10,000 horse at Marathon, 490 B.C.; and 10,000 Persian horse were slain at the battle of Issus, 333 Plutarch. In the wars with Napoleon I. the British cavalry reached to 31,000 men. Our cavalry force, in 1840, was, in household troops, 1209; dragoons, hussars, and lancers, 9524; total, 10,733In 1867, horse guards, 1317; cavalry of the line, B.C. 10,023; in depots, 838; in India, 5421; total, bishops only in 692. The decree was opposed in 17,599; see Horse Guards, &e. England, 958-978. The Romish clergy generally CAVENDISH EXPERIMENT. In 1798 the Hon. Henry Cavendish described his experiment for determining the mean density of the earth, by comparing the force of terrestrial attraction with that of the attraction of leaden spheres of known magnitude and density, by means of the torsion balance. Brande. The Cavendish Society, for the publication of chemical works, was estab-in 1839) supposes that the ultimate particles of all lished 1846. CAWNPORE, a town in India, on the Doab, a peninsula between the Ganges and Jumna. During the mutiny in June, 1857, it was garrisoned by native troops under sir Hugh Wheeler. These broke out into revolt. An adopted son of the old Peishwa Bajee Rao, Nana Sahib, who had long lived on friendly terms with the British, came apparently to their assistance, but joined the rebels. He took the place after three weeks' siege, 26 June; and in spite of a treaty massacred great numbers of the British, without respect to age or sex, in the most cruel manner. General Havelock defeated Nana Sahib, 16 July, at Futtehpore, and retook Cawnpore, 17 July. Sir Colin Campbell defeated the rebels here on 6 Dec. following. A column was erected here, in memory of the sufferers, by their relatives of the 32nd regiment. In Dec. 1860, Nana was said to be living at Thibet; and in Dec. 1861 was incorrectly said to have been captured at Kurrachee; see India, 1857. CAXTON SOCIETY, established for the publication of chronicles and literature of the Middle Ages, published sixteen volumes, 1844-54. CAYENNE, French Guiana (S. America), settled by the French 1604-35. It afterwards came successively into the hands of the English (1654), French, and Dutch. The last were expelled by the French in 1677. Cayenne was taken by the British, 12 Jan. 1809, but was restored to the French in 1814. Here is produced the capsicum baccatum, or cayenne pepper. Many French political prisoners were sent here in 1848. CECILIAN SOCIETY, see under Music. CEDAR CREEK AND MOUNTAIN, Virginia, U.S. On 19 Oct. 1864, gen. Sheridan converted the defeat of the Federals by the Confederates under Longstreet into a complete victory. At CEDAR MOUNTAIN gen. Stonewall Jackson defeated Banks, 9 Aug. 1862. CEDAR TREE. The red cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) came from North America before 1664; the Bermudas cedar from Bermudas before 1683; the Cedar of Lebanon (Pinus Cedrus) from the Levant before 1683. In 1850 a grove of venerable cedars, about 40 feet high, remained on Lebanon. The cedar of Goa (Cupressus Lusitanica) was brought to Europe by the Portuguese about 1683; see Cypress. CELERY is said to have been introduced into England by the French marshal, Tallard, during his captivity in England, after his defeat at Blenheim by Marlborough, 2 Aug. 1704. CELESTIAL GLOBE, see Globes. CELIBACY (from celebs, unmarried), was preached by St. Anthony in Egypt about 305. His early converts lived in caves, &c., till monasteries were founded. The doctrine was rejected in the council of Nice, 325. Celibacy was enjoined on CELL THEORY (propounded by Schwann animal and vegetable tissues are small cells. Some of the lowest forms of animal and vegetable life germinal vesicle in the egg and the red-snow plant. are said to be composed of merely a single cell, as the CELTIBERI, see Numantine War. CELTS, or KELTS, a group of the Aryan family; see Gauls. CEMETERIES. The burying-places of the Jews, Greeks, Romans, were outside their towns (Matt. xxvii. 60). Many public cemeteries resembling" Père La Chaise" at Paris, have been opened in all parts of the kingdom since 1856; see Catacombs, Bunhill-fields. CENSORS, Roman magistrates, to survey and rate the property, and correct the manners of the people. The two first censors were appointed 443 B.C. Plebeian censors were first appointed 131 B.C. The office, abolished by the emperors, was revived by Decius, A.D. 251; see Press. CENSUS. The Israelites were numbered by Moses, 1490 B.C.; and by David, 1017 B.C.; Demetrius Phalereus is said to have taken a census of Attica, 317 B.C. Servius Tullius enacted that a general estimate of every Roman's estate and personal effects, should be delivered to the governUnited Kingdom the census is now taken at decenment upon oath every five years, 566 B.C. nial periods since 1801; 1811, 1821, 1831, 1841, 1851, For the latest census of other countries, see TABLE, 1861 (7 April), 1871 (3 April). See Population. facing page 1. In the large American steamer of this name was wrecked CENTRAL AMERICA, see America. A during a gale in the gulf of Mexico, 12 Sept. 1857, Of about 550 persons only 152 were saved; several of these after drifting on rafts above 600 miles. The loss of about 2 million dollars in specie aggra Père La Chaise was the favourite and confessor of Louis XIV., who made him superior of a great establishment of the Jesuits on this spot, then named Mont Louis. The house and grounds were bought for a national cemetery, which was laid out by M. Brongniart, and first used on 21 May, 1804. estab vated the commercial panic in New York shortly CENTRAL HALL OF SCIENCES, see under Albert. CENTURION, the captain, head, or commander of a subdivision of a Roman legion, which consisted of 100 men, and was called a centuria. By the Roman census each hundred of the people was called a centuria, 556 B.C. CENTURY. The Greeks computed time by the Olympiads, beginning 776 B.C., and the Roman church by Indictions, the first of which began 24 Sept., A.D. 312. The method of computing time by centuries commenced from the incarnation of Christ, and was adopted in chronological history first in France. Dupin. CEPHALONIA, one of the Ionian islands, was taken from the Etolians by the Romans, 189 B.C., and given to the Athenians by Hadrian, A.D. 135; see Ionian Isles. CEPHISUS, a river in Attica, near which Walter de Brienne, duke of Athens, was defeated and slain by the Catalans, 1311. CERBERE, a French gun-brig, with a crew of 87 men, and seven guns, in the harbour of L'Orient, within pistol-shot of three batteries, was captured in a most daring manner by lieut. Jeremiah Coghlan, in a cutter with 19 companions aided by two boats, one of which was commanded by midshipman Paddon. The prize was towed out under a heavy but ineffectual fire from the batteries, 26 July, 1800. Nicolas. CEREMONIES, MASTER OF THE, an office instituted for the more honourable reception of ambassadors and persons of quality at court, 1 James I. 1603. The order maintained by the master of the ceremonies at Bath, "Beau Nash," the "King of Bath," led to the adoption of the office in ordinary assemblies; he died in his 88th year, 1761. Ashe. CERES, a planet, 160 miles in diameter, was discovered by M. Piazzi, at Palermo, 1 Jan. 1801; he named it after the goddess highly esteemed by the ancient Sicilians. CERESUOLA (N. Italy). Here Francis de Bourbon, count d'Enghien, defeated the imperialists under the marquis de Guasto, 14 April, 1544. CERIGNOLA (S. Italy). Here the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova and the Spaniards defeated the duc de Nemours and the French, 28 April, 1503. CERINTHIANS, followers of Cerinthus, a Jew, who lived about A.D. 80, are said to have combined Judaism with pagan philosophy. CERIUM, a very rare metal, discovered by Klaproth and others in 1803. CEUTA (the ancient Septa), a town on N. coast of Africa, stands on the site of the ancient Abyla, the southern pillar of Hercules. It was taken, CHALCEDON. from the Vandals by Belisarius for Justinian, 534; in the Indian Ocean, called by the natives the seat established Intercourse with the British begun and captured : 1505 1603 1664 Ceylon was ceded to Great Britain by the peace of Amiens prisoned by the Adigar of Candy, at Colombo; Complete sovereignty of the island assumed by see Candy Bishopric of Colombo founded. 26 June, 1803 England. The governor, lord Torrington, absolved from a Prosperity of Ceylon greatly increased under the charge of undue severity in suppressing a rebel lion. administration of sir H. Ward. 1815 1845 May, 1851 1855-60 1859 . Sir J. E. Tennent's work, "Ceylon," appeared ruined by Philip; 32,000 Macedonians defeating chain bridge in the world is said to be that at KingCHAIN BRIDGES. The largest and oldest tung, in China, where it forms a perfect road from Mr. Telford constructed the first chain-bridge on a the top of one mountain to the top of another. grand scale in England, over the strait between Anglesey and the coast of Wales, 1818-25; see Menai Straits. Iron chain-cables were in use by the Veneti, a people CHAIN-CABLES, PUMPS, AND SHOT. intimately connected with the Belge of Britain in the time of Cæsar, 57 B. C. These cables came into Acts for the proving and sale of chain-cables and use, generally in the navy of England, in 1812. anchors were passed in 1864 and 1871.-CHAINSHOT, to destroy the rigging of an enemy's ship, 1666.-CHAIN-PUMPS were first used on board the were invented by the Dutch admiral, De Witt, in Flora, British frigate, in 1787. 1752, it was enacted that the judge should direct CHALCEDON, Asia Minor, opposite Byzan- CHALCIS, see Eubœa. CHALDEA, the ancient name of Babylonia, but afterwards restricted to the S. W. portion. The Chaldæans were devoted to astronomy and astrology; see Dan. ii. &c.-The CHALDEAN REGISTERS of celestial observations, said to have commenced 2234 B.C., were brought down to the taking of Babylon by Alexander, 331 B.C. (1903 years). These registers were sent to Aristotle by Callisthenes. -CHALDEAN CHARACTERS: the Bible was transcribed from the original Hebrew into these characters, now called Hebrew, by Ezra, about 445 B.C. CHALGROVE (Oxfordshire). At a skirmish here with prince Rupert, 18 June, 1643, John Hampden, of the parliament party, was wounded, and died 24 June. A column was erected to his memory 18 June, 1843. CHALONS-SUR-MARNE (N. E. France). Here the emperor Aurelian defeated Tetricus, the last of the pretenders to the throne, termed the Thirty Tyrants, 274; and here in 451 Aëtius defeated Attila the Hun, compelling him to retire into Pannonia. CHAMBERLAIN, early a high court officer in France, Germany, and England. The office of chamberlain of the exchequer was discontinued in 1834. HEREDITARY LORD GREAT CHAMBERLAIN OF ENGLAND. -The sixth great officer of state, whose duties, among others, relate to coronations and public solemnities. The office was long held by the De Veres, earls of Oxford, granted by Henry I. in 1101. On the death of John De Vere, the sixteenth earl, Mary, his sole daughter, marrying lord Willoughby de Eresby, the right was established in that nobleman's family by a judgment of the house of peers, 2 Charles I. 1625. On the death of his descendant, unmarried, in July 1779, the house of lords and twelve judges concurred that the office devolved to lady Willoughby de Eresby, and her sister the lady Georgina Charlotta Bertie, as heirs to their brother Robert, duke of Ancaster, deceased; and that they had powers to appoint a deputy to act for them, not under the degree of a knight, who, if his majesty approved of him, might officiate accordingly. Beatson. This dignity was for some time held jointly by the lord Willoughby D'Eresby and the marquis of Cholmondeley, descendants of John de Vere, earl of Oxford. Lord Willoughby D'Eresby died without issue 27 Aug. 1870, and lord Aveland, his sister's son, was appointed to act. LORD CHAMBERLAIN OF THE HOUSEHOLD.- An ancient office. The title is from the French Chambellan, in Latin Cumerarius. Sir William Stanley, knt., afterwards beheaded, was lord chamberlain, 1 Henry VII. 1485. A vice-chamberlain acts in the absence of the chief; the offices are co-existent. Bentson. The Chamberlain of London is an ancient office. CHAMBERS, see Commerce, Agriculture. CHAMBERS' JOURNAL was first published at Edinburgh in Feb. 1832. CHAMBRE ARDENTE (fiery chamber), an extraordinary French tribunal so named from the punishment frequently awarded by it. Francis I. in 1535, and Henry II. in 1549, employed it for the extirpation of heresy, which led to the civil war with the Huguenots in 1560; and in 1679 Louis XIV. appointed one to investigate the poisoning cases which arose after the execution of the marchioness Brinvilliers. CHAMBRE INTROUVABLE, a name given to the chamber of deputies, elected in France in 1815, on account of its ignorance, incapacity, and bigoted reactionary spirit. CHAMPAGNE, an ancient province, N. E. France, once part of the kingdom of Burgundy, was governed by counts from the 10th century till it was united to Navarre, count Thibaut becoming king, in 1234. The countess Joanna married Philip IV. of France in 1284; and in 1361 Champagne was annexed by their descendant king John. The effervescing wine termed Champagne, became popular in the latter part of the 18th century. CHAMP DE MARS, an open square in front of the Military school at Paris, with artificial embankments on each side, extending nearly to the river Seine. The ancient assemblies of the Frankish people, the germ of parliaments, held annually in March, received this name. In 747, Pepin changed the month to May. Here was held, 14 July, 1790 (the anniversary of the capture of the Bastile), the "federation," or solemnity of swearing fidelity to the "patriot king' " and new constitution: great rejoicings followed. On 14 July, 1791, a second great meeting was held here, directed by the Jacobin clubs, to sign petitions on the "altar of the country," praying for the abdication of Louis XVI. A commemoration meeting took place 14 July, 1792. Another constitution was sworn to here, under the called the Champ de Mai. The prince president eye of Napoleon I., I May, 1815, at a ceremony (afterwards Napoleon III.) had a grand review in the Champ de Mars, and distributed eagles to the army, 10 May, 1852. Here also was held the International Exhibition of 1867, opened 1 April. CHAMPION OF THE KING OF ENGLAND, an ancient office, since 1377 has been attached to the mannor of Scrivelsby, held by the Marmion family. Their descendant, sir Henry Dymoke, the seventeenth of his family who has held the office, died 28 April, 1865, and was succeeded by his brother John. At the coronation of the English kings, the champion used to challenge any one that should deny their title. CHAMPLAIN, see Lake Champlain. CHANCELLOR OF ENGLAND, LORD HIGH, the first lay subject after the princes of the blood royal. Anciently the office was conferred upon some dignified ecclesiastic termed Cancellarius, or doorkeeper, who admitted suitors to the sovereign's presence. Arfastus or Herefast, chaplain to the king (William the Conqueror) and bishop of Elmham, was lord chancellor in 1067. Hardy. Thomas à Becket was made chancellor in 1154. The first person qualified by education, to decide causes upon his own judgment, was sir Thomas More, appointed in 1529, before which time the officer was rather a state functionary than a judge. Sir Christopher Hatton, appointed lord chancellor in 1587, was very ignorant, on which account the first reference was made to a master in 1588. The great seal has been frequently put in commission; in 1813 the office of Vice-Chancellor was established; see Keeper, and Vice-Chancellor. |