London, in Feb., and Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh in Nov. 1847; and was administered in England on 14 Dec. 1848, by Mr. James Robinson, surgeon-dentist. A committee of the Royal Medical and Chirurgical Society in July, 1864, after examining statistics, reported that the use of anaesthetics had in no degree increased the rate of mortality. CHOBHAM COMMON, in Surrey. A military camp was formed here on 14 June, 1853, by a force between 8000 and 10,000 strong Only one serious case of misconduct was reported during all the time. CHOCOLATE, made of the cocoa berry, introduced into Europe (from Mexico and the Brazils) about 1520, was sold in the London coffee-houses soon after their establishment, 1650. CHOCZIM, Bessarabia, S. Russia. Here the Turks were totally defeated by John Sobieski, king of Poland, 11 Nov. 1673; and by the Russians, 30 April and 13 July, 1769. CHOIR. This was separated from the nave of the church in the time of Constantine. The choral service was first used in England at Canterbury, 677; see Chanting. CHOLERA MORBUS (Asiatic cholera) was described by Garcia del Huerto, a physician of Goa, about 1560. It appeared in India in 1774, and at other times, and became endemic in Lower Bengal in 1817, whence it gradually spread, till it reached Russia in 1830, and Germany in 1831, carrying off more than 900,000 persons in 1829-30. In England and Wales in 1848-9, 53,293 persons died of cholera, and in 1854, 20,097. Cholera appears at Sunderland 26 Oct. 1831 6 Feb. 1832 First observed at Rotherhithe and Limehouse, London, 13 Feb.; and in Dublin 3 March, Mortality very great, but more so on the Continent; 18,000 deaths at Paris, between March and Aug. Cholera rages in Rome, the Two Sicilies, Genoa, Berlin, &c., in July and Aug. Another visitation of cholera in England: the number of deaths in London, for the week ending 15 Sept. 1849, was 3183; the ordinary average, 1008; and the number of deaths by cholera from 17 June to 2 Oct. in London alone, 13,161. The mortality lessened and the distemper disappeared 1837 about 13 Oct. 1849 Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Hexham, Tynemouth, and other northern towns, suffer much from cholera, Sept. 1853 It rages in Italy and Sicily; above 10,000 are said Very severe in Constantinople, nearly 50,000 deaths, Cholera prevalent at Marseilles, Paris, Madrid, and An international meeting at Constantinople, to con- 26 Sept. 1866 Cholera appears at Bristol, 24 April; at Liverpool, 13 May at Southampton July, Cholera severe in east of London: 346 deaths in week ending 21 July, Greek feasts, &c. Stesichorus (or Tysias) received CHORAGUS, the regulator of the chorus in this name, having first taught the chorus to dance to the lyre, 556 B.C. Quintil. CHORUS-SINGING was early practised at Athens. Hypodicus, of Chalcides, carried off the prize for the best voice, 508 B.C. Parian marbles; see Music. during the war of La Vendée in 1792, from their CHOUANS, a name given to the Bretons chief Jean Cottercau, using the cry of the Chathuant, or screech-owl, as a signal. He was killed in 1794. Georges Cadoudal, their last chief, was said to be connected with Pichegru in a conspiracy against Napoleon when first consul, and was executed in 1804. CHRISM, consecrated oil, was used early in the ceremonies of the Greek and Roman churches. Musk, saffron, cinnamon, roses, and frankincense, are mentioned as used with the oil, in 1541. It was ordained that chrism should consist of oil and balsam only; the one representing the human nature of Christ, and the other his divine nature, 1596. CHRIST, see Jesus Christ. CHRIST'S HOSPITAL (the Blue-Coat school) was established by Edward VI. 1553, on the site of the Grey Friars' monastery. A mathematical ward was founded by Charles II. 1672. The Times ward was founded in 1841. Large portions of the edifice having fallen into decay, it was rebuilt: in 1822 a new infirmary was completed, and in 1825 (25 April) the duke of York laid the first stone of the magnificent new hall. On 24 Sept. 1854, the master, Dr. Jacob, in a sermon in the church of the hospital, censured the system of education and the general administration of the establishment, and many improvements have since been made. Rev. G. Č. Bell succeeded Dr. Jacob, 12 Aug. 1868. The subordinate school at Hertford, for 416 younger boys and 80 girls, was founded in 1683.-Annual income (1870) about 70,000l. 800 boys in London; 200 boys and 20 girls at Hertford. The removal of the school to the country negatived by the governors, 26 April, 1870. The proposal that the buildings and ground should be purchased by the Mid-London Railway Company for 600,000l. was not carried out. CHRIST'S THORN, conjectured to be the plant of which our Saviour's crown of thorns was composed, came hither from the south of Europe before 1596. CHRISTIAN ERA, see Anno Domini. CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE SOCIETY was founded in 1698 to promote charity schools, and to disperse Bibles and religious tracts. It has an annual revenue of about 100,000l. MOST CHRISTIAN KING; Christianissimus Rex, a title conferred by pope Paul II. in 1469 on the crafty Louis XI. of France. CHRISTIANIA, the capital of Norway, built in 1624, by Christian IV. of Denmark, to replace Opslo (the ancient capital founded by Harold Haardrade, 1058), which had been destroyed by fire. On 13 April, 1858, Christiania suffered by fire, the loss being about 250,000l. The university was established in 1811. New Storthing (parliament house) built 1861-2. about 137.† In the eastern church, Christmas and the Epiphany, 6 Jan. (which see), are deemed but one and the same feast. The holly and mistletoe used at Christmas are said to be the remains of the religious observances of the Druids; see Anno Domini. CHRISTMAS ISLAND, in the Pacific Ocean, so named by captain Cook, who landed here on CHRISTIANITY. The name Christian was Christmas-day, 1777. He had passed Christmasfirst given to the disciples of Christ at Antioch, in day at Christmas-sound, 1774. On the shore of Syria, 43 (Acts xi. 26; 1 Peter iv. 6). The first Christmas Harbour, visited by him in 1776, a man Christians were divided into episcopoi (bishops or found a piece of parchment inscribed: "Ludovico overseers) or presbyteros (elders), diaconoi (ministers. Galliarum rege, et d. Boynes regi a secretis ad res maritimas, annis 1772 et 1773." Discovery de rege Magne Britanniæ, Dec. 1776," side captain Cook wrote: "Naves Resolution et or deacons), and pistoi (believers); afterwards were added catechumens, or learners, and energumens, who were to be exorcised; see Persecutions. Christianity said to be taught in Britain, about A.D. 64; and propagated with some success (Bede). Christianity said to be introduced into Scotland in the reign of Donald I. about Constantine the Great professes the Christian religion Frumentius preaches in Abyssinia Introduced among the Goths by Ulfilas 156 212 312 about 346 and placed it in a bottle. On the other CHRISTOPHER'S, St. (or St. Kitt's), a West India Island, discovered in 1493, by Columbus, who gave it his own name. Settled by the English and French, 1623 or 1626. Ceded to England by the peace of Utrecht, 1713. Taken by the French in 1782, but restored the next year. The town of Into Ireland in the second century, but with more 376 Basseterre suffered from fires, 3 Sept. 1776; also success after the arrival of St. Patrick Christianity established in France by Clovis . Conversion of the Saxons by Augustin Introduced into Helvetia, by Irish missionaries Into Flanders in the 7th century. Into Saxony, by Charlemagne Into Denmark, under Harold Into Bohemia, under Borsivoi. Into Russia, by Swiatoslaf Into Poland, under Meicislaus I. Into Hungary, under Geisa about 940 Into Norway and Iceland, under Olaf I.. Into Sweden, between roth and 11th centuries. Into Prussia, by the Teutonic knights, when they were returning from the holy wars Into Lithuania; paganism was abolished about. Into Guinea, Angola, and Congo, in the 15th century. Into China, where it made some progress (but was afterwards extirpated, and thousands of Chinese Christians were put to death) Into India and America, in the 16th century. 992 994 998 1227 1386 1575 1638 . 1628 CHRISTIAN EVIDENCE SOCIETY established by earl Russell, the bishop of London, and others to counteract the current forms of un belief among the educated classes." Lectures for this purpose were given in St. George's Hall in 1871, beginning with the archbishop of York, 25 April. A public meeting was held 6 June following. Tracts for circulation are published. CHRISTINOS, supporters of the queen-regent Christina against the Carlists in Spain during the war, 1833-40. CHRISTMAS-DAY, 25 Dec. (from Christ, and the Saxon masse, signifying the mass and a feast), a festival in commemoration of the nativity of Christ, said to have been first kept 98; and ordered to be held as a solemn feast, by pope Telesphorus, * It is, traditionally, said that Gregory the Great, shortly before his elevation to the papal chair, passing through the slave-market at Rome, and perceiving some beautiful children set up for sale, inquired about their country, and finding they were English pagans, he is said to have cried out, "Non Angli sed Angeli forent, si essent Christiani; that is, "They would not be English, but angels, if they were Christians." From that time he ardently desired to convert the nation, and ordered a monk named Austin, or Augustin, and others, to undertake the mission to Britain in the year 596. CHROMO-LITHOGRAPHY, see Printing in Colours. CHRONICLES. The earliest are those of the Jews, Chinese, and Hindoos. In Scripture there are two "Books of Chronicles"; see Bible. Collections of the British chronicles have been published by Camden, Gale, &c., since 1602; in the present century by the English Historical Society, &c. In 1858, the publication of "Chronicles and Memorials of Great Britain and Ireland during the Middle Ages," commenced under the direction of the Master of the Rolls (still going on, 1873); Macray's "Manual of British Historians" was published in 1845. CHRONOLOGY (the science of time) has for its object the arrangement and exhibition of the various events of the history of the world in the order of their succession, and the ascertaining the intervals between them; see Eras and Epochs. les Dates, compiled by the Benedictines (1783-1820). Valuable works on the subject are l'Art de Vérifier Playfair's Chronology, 1784; Blair's Chronology, 1753 (new editions by sir H. Ellis in 1844, and by Mr. Rosse, in 1856). The Oxford Chronological Tables, 1838. Sir Harris Nicolas' Chronology of History, 1833; new edition, 1852. Hales' Chronology, 2nd edition, 1830; Woodward and Cates' Encyclopædia of Chronology, 1872; Mr. H. Fynes-Clinton's Fasti Hellenici and Fasti Romani (1824-50). CHRONOMETER, see Clocks, and Harrison. CHRONOSCOPE, an apparatus invented by professor Wheatstone in 1840, to measure small intervals of time. It has been applied to the velocity of projectiles and of the electric current. A chronoscope was invented by Pouillet, in 1844, and by others since. Capt. Andrew Noble (engaged by sir Diocletian, the Roman emperor, keeping his court at Nicomedia, being informed that the Christians were assembled on this day in great multitudes to celebrate Christ's nativity, ordered the doors to be shut, and the church to be set on fire, and 600 perished in the burning pile. This was the commencement of the tenth persecution, which lasted ten years, 303. William Armstrong) invented an apparatus for determining the velocity of a projectile in a gun; a second of time is divided into millionths, and the electric spark is employed in recording the rate of the passage. The apparatus was exhibited at Newcastleon-Tyne in Aug. 1869, and in London in April, 1870. CHRYSOPOLIS, or SCUTARI. CHUNAR, or CHUNARGHUR, N.W. India, taken by the British, 1763, and ceded to them, 1768. Here was concluded a treaty between the nabob of Oude and governor Hastings, by which the nabob was relieved of his debts to the East India Company, on condition of his seizing the property of the begums, his mother and grandmother, and delivering it up to the English, 19 Sept. 1781. This treaty enabled the nabob to take the lands of Fyzoola Khan, a Rohilla chief, who had settled at Rampoor, under guarantee of the English. The nabob presented to Mr. Hastings 100,000l.; see Hastings. CHURCH (probably derived from the 'Greek kyriakos, pertaining to the Lord, Kyrios), signifies both a collected body of Christians, and the place where they meet. In the New Testament, it signinifies "congregation," in the original ekklesia. Christian architecture commenced with Constantine, who erected at Rome churches called basilicas (from the Greek basileus, a king); St. Peter's about 330. His successors erected others, and adopted the heathen temples as places of worship. Several very ancient churches exist in Britain and Ireland. See Architecture; Choir and Chanting; Rome, Modern; Popes. The church of England consists of three orders of clergy-bishops, priests and deacons; viz., two archbishops and twenty-five bishops, exclusive of the see of Sodor and Man. The other dignities are chancellors, deans (of cathedrals and collegiate churches), archideacons, prebendaries, canons, minor canons, and priestvicars these and the incumbents of rectories, vicarages, and chapelries, make the number of preferments of the established church, according to official returns, 12,327. The number of benefices in England and Wales, according to parliamentary returns, in 1844, was 11,127, and the number of glebe-houses 5527. The number of parishes is 11,077, and of churches and chapels about 14,100. The number of benefices in Ireland was 1495, to which there were not more than about goo glebe-houses attached, the rest having no glebe-houses. An act was passed in 1860 for the union of contiguous benefices. In 1867 the beneficed clergy were estimated at 12,888; curates and other clergy without livings about 7000. Rise of the Evangelical party in the church, under of the Union. Incorporated Church Building Society established, Clergy Incapacitation Act passed 1800 1801 6 Feb. 1818 Acts for building and enlarging churches, 1828, 1838 200 new churches erected in the diocese of London under bishop C. J. Blomfield "Tracts for the Times" (No. 1-90) published (much controversy ensued) 1828-56 1833-41 1834 1840 1861-2 Ecclesiastical Commission established New Church Discipline Act (3 & 4 Vict. c. 86) "Essays and Reviews" published, 1860; numerous Replies issued (see Essays and Reviews) [The Church of England is now said to be divided into High, Moderate, Low (or Evangelical), and Broad Church: the last including persons who hold the opinions of the late Dr. Arnold, the Rev. F. D. Maurice, dean Stanley, canon Kingsley, and others.] Dr. Colenso, bishop of Natal, publishes his work "The Pentateuch," about Oct. 1862; the bishops, in convocation, declare that it contains "errors of the gravest and most dangerous cha racter" 20 May, 1863 A Church Congress at Manchester 13, 14, 15 Oct. Bishop Colenso deposed by his metropolitan, Dr. Gray, bishop of Capetown. 16 April, 1864 Church Congress at Bristol Church Association (against popery and ritualism) established. on Oct. District Churches Tithes act passed (rectories constituted). 1865 Bishop Colenso's appeal came before the privy Bishop of London's Fund, for remedying spiritual 100,4561. received; 72,003l. promised 31 Dec. 1864 The queen engages to give 15,000l. in 10 years, April, 1865 New form of clerical subscription proposed by a commission in 1864; adopted by parliament, 15 Nov. July, Church Congress at Norwich 3-7 Oct. Meeting in London of three English bishops, Dr. Pusey, and nearly 80 of the clergy and laity with counts Orloff and Tolstse, and the Russian chaplain, to consider on the practicability of uniting the English and Russian churches Bishop Colenso publicly excommunicated at Maritzburg cathedral, by bishop Gray 5 Jan. 1866 Bishop Gray declares himself independent, establishes synods, and calls his see The Church of South Africa' early in The Church Missionary Society refuses to support colonial bishops, unless they keep within the formularies of the Church of England early in Church Congress at York 6 Oct. Bishop Colenso v. Gladstone and others (trustees of Unqualified condemnation of ritualism by the Hebbert v. Purchas, of Brighton; verdict against Incumbents' Resignation Act passed 2 Dec. Church reform meeting at St. James's Hall; parochial councils recommended Feb. 1872 15 Feb. Rev. John Purchas, of Brighton, to be suspended from duties for one year, from [He died 18 Oct.] Conference of bishops, deans, and canons at Lambeth, to consider cathedral reform 1 March, Sheppard v. Bennett; judgment for defendant, who is censured 8 June, Mr. Miall's motion for royal commission to inquire into the property of the church lost (295-94) 2 July, Church Congress at Leeds 8-11 Oct. . . Pragmatic sanction of Bourges, declaring a general council superior to the pope, and prohibiting appeals to him Pragmatic sanction of St. Louis restraining the impositions of the pope; and restoring the right of electing bishops, &e. 496 1269 1438 Church Congress at Wolverhampton Meeting of ritualists in St. James's Hall, claiming liberty 19 Nov. Case of Martin v. Mackonochie, begun 4 Dec., lasted 14 days; resumed 16-18 Jan. 1868 Proposal of bishop Gray of Capetown to consecrate Mr. Macrorie bishop of Natal in opposition to bishop Colenso, disapproved of by the English and Scotch bishops Jan. Bishop of London's Fund, received, 312,309l. 31 Jan. Martin r. Mackonochie decided; verdict for plaintiff; use of incense, mixing water with the wine, and elevation of the elements, in the sacrament, forbidden 28 March, Concordat of Leo X. and Francis I. annulling the pragmatic sanction 18 Aug. 1516 Disputes between the Jesuits and Jansenists 1640 Declaration of the clergy (drawn up by Bossuet) in accordance with the pragmatic sanctions, confirmed by the king 23 March, 1682 The Jansenists excommunicated by the Bull Unigenitus . 1713 Concordat with Pius VII. and Napoleon 1801 and 1813 The principles of the concordat of Leo X. restored by Pius VII. and Louis XVIII. The archbishop of Paris and other prelates resist the dogma of papal infallibility at the council at Rome 1817 1870 CHURCH OF IRELAND, founded by St. Patrick in the 5th century; accepted the Reformation about 1550; united with that of England as the United Church of England and Ireland in 1800; see Bishops and Ireland, 1868. "An act to put an end to the establishment of the Meeting of the general synod of the Irish church in 1871 A sustentation fund established (well supported) The new ecclesiastical court meets: tries a case of 31 Dec. CHURCH OF NORTH AMERICA, was established in Nov. 1784, when bishop Seabury, chosen by the churches in Connecticut, was consecrated in Scotland. The first convention was held at Philadelphia in 1785. On 4 Feb. 1787, two more American bishops were consecrated at Lambeth. In 1851 there were 37 bishops; see Pan-Anglican Synod. CHURCH OF SCOTLAND, see Bishops in Scotland. On the abolition of Episcopacy, in 1638, Presbyterianism became the established religion Its formulary of faith, said to have been compiled by John Knox, in 1560, was approved by the parliament and ratified in 1567, finally settled by an act of the Scottish senate in 1696, and secured by the treaty of union with England in 1707; see Discipline, Patronage, and Bishops. The church is regulated by four courts-the general assembly, the synod, the presbytery, and kirk sessions; see Presbyterians. For important secessions, see Burghers (1732), and Free Church (1843). The first general assembly of the church was held 20 Dec. 1560. The general assembly constitutes the highest ecclesiastical court in the kingdom; it meets annually in Edinburgh in May, and sits about ten days. It consists of a grand commissioner, appointed by the sovereign, and delegates from presbyteries, royal boroughs, and universities, some being laymen. To this court all appeals from the inferior ecclesiastical courts lie, and its decision is final. CHURCH-RATES. The maintaining the church in repair belongs to the parishioners, who have the sole power of taxing themselves for the expense when assembled in vestry. The enforcement of payment, which is continually disputed by dissenters and others, belonged to the ecclesiastical courts. Many attempts were made to abolish church-rates before Mr. Gladstone's " "Compulsory Church-rate Abolition" Bill, passed 31 July, 1868. CHURCH SERVICES were ordered by pope Vitellianus to be read in Latin, 663; by queen Elizabeth in 1558 to be read in English. CHURCH-WARDENS, officers of the church, appointed by the first canon of the synod of London in 1127. Overseers in every parish were also appointed by the same body, and they continue now nearly as then constituted. Johnson's Canons. Church-wardens, by the canons of 1603, are to be chosen annually. CHURCHYARDS, see Consecration. CHURCHING OF WOMEN is the act of returning thanks in the church by women after child-birth. It began about 214. Wheatley; see Purification. Charles I. to France. John Philips published his poem "Cider" in 1706. CIGAR SHIP, see under Steam, 1866. CILICIA, in Asia Minor, partook of the fortunes of that country. It became a Roman province about 64 B.C., and was conquered by the Turks, A.D. 1387. CIMBRI, a Teutonic race from Jutland, invaded the Roman empire about 120 B.C. They defeated the Romans, under Cneius Papirius Carbo, 113 B.C.; under the consul, Marcus Silanus, 109 B.C., and under Cæpio Manlius, at Arausio, on the banks of the Rhine, where 80,000 Romans were slain, 105 B.C. Their allies, the Teutones, were defeated by Marius in two battles at Aqua Sextia (Aix) in Gaul; 200,000 were killed, and 70,000 made prisoners, 102 B.C. The Cimbri were defeated about to enter Italy; 120,000 were killed, and by Marius and Catulus, at Campus Raudius, when 60,000 taken prisoners, 10I B.C. They were after wards absorbed into the Teutones or Saxons. CIMENTO (Italian, experiment). The "Accademia del Cimento," at Florence, held its first meeting for making scientific experiments, 18 June, of Tuscany. The Royal Society of London was 1657. It was patronised by Ferdinand, grand duke founded in 1660, and the Academy of Sciences at Paris in 1666. CINCHONA, see Jesuits' Bark. CINCINNATI. A society established by officers of the American army soon after the peace fund for relieving the widows and orphans of those of 1783, "to perpetuate friendship, and to raise a who had fallen during the war." On the badge was a figure of Cincinnatus. The people dreaded military influence, and the society dissolved itself. CINNAMON, a species of laurel, is mentioned among the perfumes of the sanctuary (Exodus xxx. 23) 1491 B.C. It was found in the American forests by don Ulloa, in 1736, was cultivated in Jamaica and Dominica in 1788, and is now grown in Ceylon. CINQUE-CENTO (five hundred); ter cento, &c.; see note to article Italy. CINQUE PORTS, on the south coast of England, were originally five (hence the name)Dover, Hastings, Hythe, Romney, and Sandwich; Winchelsea and Rye were afterwards added. Jeake. Their jurisdiction was vested in barons, called wardens, for the better security of the coast, these ports being nearest to France, and considered the keys of the kingdom; instituted by William I. in 1078. Rapin. The latest lord-wardens were the duke of Wellington, 1828-52; the marquis of Dalhousie, 1852-60; lord Palmerston, 1861-65; earl Granville, appointed Dec. 1865. Their peculiar jurisdiction was abolished in 1855. CINTRA (Portugal). Here was signed an CHUSAN, a Chinese isle; see China, 1840, agreement on 22 Aug. 1808, between the French 1841, 1860. CIDER (Zider, German), when first made in England, was called wine, about 1284. The earl of Manchester, when ambassador in France, is said to have passed off cider for wine. It was subjected to the excise in 1763 et seq. The duty was taken off in 1830. Many orchards were planted in Herefordshire by lord Scudamore, ambassador from and English the day after the battle of Vimeira. As it contained the bases of the convention signed on 30 Aug. following, it has been termed the convention of Cintra. By it Junot and his army were permitted to evacuate Portugal free, in British ships. The convention was publicly condemned, and a court of inquiry was held at Chelsea, which exonerated the British commanders. Both Wellington and Napoleon justitied sir Hew Dalrymple. |