been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 1870. CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three primary forms-cirrus, cumulus, and stratus; three compounds of these forms; and the nimbus or black rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865. CLOVESHO0 (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and clergy concerning the government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747; and others were held here, 800, 803, 822, 824. CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834; see Bishops. CLUBMEN, associations founded in the southern and western counties of England, to restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents. CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present' London clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 members, possess handsome luxuriously furnished edifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain choice viands and wines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athenæum (which see). The annual payment varies from 67. to 11. 118.; the entrance fee from 97. 98. to 31. 118. The following are the principal clubs; several are described in separate articles : 1659 1700 . 1734 . 1735 1736 1743 Literary Club (which see), termed also "The Club," 1762 and Johnson's Club Brooke's, originally Almack's (Whig) . Alfred (literary) Guards'. Arthur's, early in 18th century; house built Roxburghe, London United Service. Travellers' Union United University Bannatyne, Edinburgh Athenæum (which see) 1764 1808-51 1 May, 1810 1811 1812 They were essentially political, and greatly conCLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782. cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were revived 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 1850. Bouillet. CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shortening of one or more of the muscles, although attempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife. CLUGNY or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aquitaine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after. CLYDE AND FORTH WALL was built by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde CANAL was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communication between the seas on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland. CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedæmonian fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C. Beckmann COACH (from coucher, to lie). states that Charles of Anjou's queen entered Naples in a caretta (about 1282). Under Francis I. there were but two in Paris, one belonging to the queen, the other to Diana, the natural daughter of Henry II. There were but three in Paris in 1550; and Henry IV. had one without straps or springs. John de Laval de Bois-Dauphin set up a coach on account of his enormous bulk. The first coach seen in England was about 1553. Coaches were introduced by Fitz-Alan, earl of Arundel, in 1580. Stow. A bill was brought into parliament to prevent the effeminacy of men riding in coaches, 43 Eliz. 1601. Carte. Repealed 1625. The coach of the duke of 1815 Buckingham had six horses, that of the earl of Northumberland eight, 1619. The coach-tax commenced in 1747. Horace Walpole says that the present royal state coach (first used 16 Nov. 1762), cost 75281. The lord mayor's old state coach was not used 9 Nov. 1867; see Car, Carriages, Chariots, 1827 Hackney Coaches, Mail Coaches, &c. 1819 1821 1822 1823 1824 1828 1829 lington and others 1831 COAL. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the *There are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, coal, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of wood is 491 carbon, 6'3 hydrogen, 44'6 oxygen; of coal 82 6 carbon, 5'6 hydrogen, 11'8 oxygen. Duplicate shafts act passed 1862 Coal-pitmen's strikes frequently occur; a long and A coal-cutting machine at work, producing about Great dearth of coal in London (see Strikes), best Romans in their notices of Britain, was yet in use by the ancient Britons. Brandt. Henry III. is said to have granted a licence to dig coals near Newcastle-upon-Tyne in 1234; some say earlier, and others in 1239. Sea-coal was prohibited from being used in and near London, as being "prejudicial to human health; and even smiths were obliged to burn wood, 1273. Stow. In 1306 the gentry petitioned against its use. Coal was first made an article of trade from Newcastle to London, Parliamentary committee respecting coal first met 4 Rich II. 1381. Rymer's Fœdera. Notwithstanding the many previous complaints against coal as a public nuisance, it was at length generally burned in London in 1400; but it was not in common use in England until the reign of Charles I. 1625. Coal was brought to Dublin from Newry in 1742. 1700 consumed in London 317,000 chald. 1750 1800 1810 1820 1,171,178 2,299,816 tons, 1850 1860.-Coal brought to London, 3,573,377 tons coast- The coal-fields of Great Britain are estimated at 5400 By a stipulation in the commercial treaty of 1860, in A commission (consisting of the duke of Argyll, sir R. I. Murchison, Dr. John Percy, professor Ramsay, and others) appointed to investigate into the probable quantity of coal in the coal-fields of the United Kingdom, &c. 28 June, 1866, reported 27 July, 1871 :— Attainable quantity of coal in known coal-fields 1831 TONS 90,207,000,000 Probable available coal in other places 56,273,000,000 1834 Sir R. Peel imposed a duty of ton in 1842; 48. a caused much dissatisfaction; repealed Women were prohibited from working in English collieries in 1845 The consumption of coal in France in 1780, only 400,000 tons, rises to 6,000,000 tons in 1842 1845 The United States produced between 8 and 9 millions 1860 24 March, ACCIDENTS. About 1000 lives are lost annually by accidents in mines. (1856-67). In 1858, by explosions in coal-mines, 52 persons perished at Bardsley; 20 at Duffryn, near Newport; 52 at Tyldesley, near Leeds; and about 36 in different parts of the country. 1859-5 April, 26 lives were lost at the chain colliery, near Neath, through the irruption of water. 1860-76 lives were lost on 2 March, at Burradon, near Killingworth; 145 at the Risca mine, near Newport, 1 Dec.; and 22 at the Hetton mine, Northumberland, 20 Dec. 1861-11 June, 21 lives were lost through an inundation in the Claycross mines, Derbyshire. 85 lives were lost at Lalle coal-mine, in France, in Oct. 1861. 1862-47 lives were lost at Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill, S. Wales, 19 Feb.; at Walker, near Newcastle on-Tyne, 15 lives lost, 22 Nov.; Edmund's Main, near Barnsley, 60 lives lost, 8 Dec. 1863-13 lives lost at Coxbridge, near Newcastle, 6 March; 39 lives lost at Margam, S. Wales, 17 Oct.; 14 lives lost at Moestig, S. Wales, 26 Dec. 1865-6 lives lost at Claycross, 3 May; 24 at New Bedwelty pit, near Tredegar, 16 June; explosion at Gethin mine, Merthyr Tydvill; 30 lives lost, 20 Dec. 1866-Explosion at Highbrook colliery, near Wigan, Lancashire, about 30 lives lost, 23 Jan. ; at Dukinfield, near Ashton, 37 lives lost, 14 June; at Pelton Fell colliery, near Durham, about 24 lives lost, 31 Oct.; at Oaks colliery, Hoyle-mill, near Barnsley, about 360 persons killed, 12 Dec. 28 searchers killed (including Mr. Parkin Jeffcock, mining engineer) by fresh explosion, 13 Dec.; at Talke-of-the-hill, Staffordshire; about 80 persons perish, 13 Dec. 1867-Explosion at Garswood colliery, near St. Helen's, 14 lives lost, 29 Aug.; Shankhouse colliery, Cramlington, Northumberland, flooded: about 200 men drowned, 1 Nov.; explosion at Ferndale colliery, Rhonnda Valley, near Cardiff about 178 lives lost: attributed to naked lights, 8 Nov. (For still more fatal accidents, see Lundhill and Hartley.) 47 lives lost in a mine near Jemmappes, Belgium, 6 Aug. 1868. 1868. Explosions: at Green pit, near Ruabon, 11 persons killed, 30 Sept.; at Arley mine, Hindley-green, near Wigan, 62 killed, 26 Nov.; at Norley mine, near Wigan, about 7 killed, 21 Dec.; at Haydock colleries, near St. Helen's, 26 deaths, 30 Dec. 1869. Brierly pit, near Stourbridge, inundated 17 March, many lost;-some rescued, 20, 21 March; Explosions at Highbrooks colliery, near Wigan, about 33 persons perished, 1 April; at Ferndale colliery, Glamorganshire, about 60 lost, ro June; Haydock pit, St. Helen's, about 58 lost, 21 July; Moss Coal Company's pit, near Hindley, about 30 lost, 22 Nov. 1870. Explosions at Silverdale colliery, Staffordshire, 19 killed, 7 July; Llansamlet, near Swansea, 19 killed, 23 July; Brynn-hall, near Wigan, about 19 killed, 19 Aug. 1871. Explosions, Renishaw park colliery, Eckington, near Sheffield, 27 killed, 10 Jan.; Pentre colliery, Rhonnda valley, 38 killed, 24 Feb; Victoria, near Ebbw vale, Monmouthshire, about 19 killed, 2 March; Moss Pits, near Wigan, 70 killed, 6 Sept.; Grisons, Belgium, 30 killed, 27 Sept.; Gedly pit, Aberdare, 4 killed, 4 Oct.; Seaham, 30 killed, 25 Oct. 1872. Explosions-Lynvi valley near Bridgend, 11 killed, 11 Jan.; Black lake colliery, S. Staffordshire, 8 killed, (through carelessness), 25 Jan.; Morley main, near Dewsbury and Leeds, 7 Oct. about 34 deaths: great carelessness and bad discipline; Rains mine, Pendlebury, 6 killed, 6 Nov.; Monceaux, department of Saône et Loire, about 38 killed, 8 Nov.; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 drowned by influx of water from an old working 14 Nov. 1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire, Coal and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. COAL EXCHANGE, London, established by 47 Geo. III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. Bunning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 COAL-WHIPPERS' BOARD, to protect the men employed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners themselves established a whipping office. COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE generally arose through England subsidising the great powers of the continent. COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, Grenville II., Pelham, and Portland. COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and governing this body was transferred to the admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in Nov. 1859.-COAST VOLUNTEERS, see under Navy of England. COASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854. COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workman call it mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733. COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden town, was inaugurated, 27 June, 1868. COBURG, see Saxe Coburg. COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Erythoxylon Coca a South American plant; men taking a little of this are enabled to endure hard labour without any food for six or seven days and nights. Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in German was published at Vienna in 1849. COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith. He died in 1665. COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France). Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 May, 1364. COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; by the Dutch, 1663; by Hyder Ali, 1776; taken by the British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814.-COCHIN CHINA, see Anam. COCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), deriving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there. In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the vines having failed through disease. 260.000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England in 1830; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2.360,000 lbs. in 1850; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty repealed 1845. COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. Edward Cocker, an eminent penman born 1631, died 1677, compiled a book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John Hawkins. COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, was brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on ShroveTuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365; by Henry VIII.; and by Cromwell, 1653, and latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I.; and the Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. Till lately there was a Cock-pit-Royal in St. James's Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would not renew the lease for the building. Cock-fighting is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 persons were fined at Marlborough-street policeoffice, for being present at a cock-fight. It is now popular in New York (1873). COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762. COCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of Theocountry shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where broma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989.477 lbs.; in 1855, 7,343,458 lbs.; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs.; in 1866, 10,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14,793,950 lbs.; about half for home consumption. COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordhoney, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in a month from these materials at the Belmont works, Lambeth. CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C.; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published A.D. 290; the Theodosian code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 429; and published for the eastern empire in 438. stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian in 529-a digest from this last made in 533; see Basilica. Alfred's code is the foundation of the * Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many profitable matches. The last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire. three days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, near London, 4 April, 1788. common law of England, 887.-The CODE NAPOLEON, the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing, and has been adopted by other countries. CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c. COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De Jongh's treatise on cod liver was published in Latin, 1844; in English, 1849. CŒUR DE LION or THE LION-HEARTED, a surname given to Richard I. of England, on account of his courage about 1192; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223. COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Balliol college, Oxford, 1641. Anderson. The quantity of coffee imported into these realms in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in 1860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. ; in 1870, 179,901,864 lbs. The first coffee-house in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford Mr. Edwards, an English turkey merchant, brought home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who opened the first coffee-house in London, in Georgeyard, Lombard-street Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. Anderson. Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a 1650 1652 1657 1676 1869 2 May, 1872 COFFERER OF THE HOUSEHOLD, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed. COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold; and glass coffins have been found in England. Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of king Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, 542. Asser. Patent coffins were invented in 1796; air-tight metallic coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861. COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 420 men, with 300 cavalry, divided into centuries. It was the sixth part of a legion. COIF. The serjeant's coif was originally an iron scull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards changed into white silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges. COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308; finally settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Iñez de Castro, at first mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355. COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was coined 206 B.C. 1ron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, or of those who had received divine honours. Julius Cæsar first obtained permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. The Anglo-Saxons coined silver. Rev. Roger Ruding's "Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain," published 1817-40. The gold and silver coinage in the world is about 250,000,000l. silver, and 150,000,000l. gold. Times, 25 June, 1852; see Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, and other coins under names. An international conference relative to a universal system of coinage met at Paris in 1867; and a royal commission was appointed in London, Feb. 1868. The first coinage in England was under the Romans at Camalodunum, or Colchester. English coin. was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used. Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow. and genuine issued 1547-53 1560 Coinage reformed by Edward VI. Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, and John Locke) was appointed by William III. to reform the coinage; an act was passed, withdrawing the debased coin from circulation, and 1,200,000l. was raised by a house duty to defray the expense 1695-96 Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas. 1732 The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclamation, amounted to about 15.563,5931.; the expense of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 754,019l. 1773-6 Act for weighing gold coin passed. 13 June, 1774 The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000l. in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000l. in 1762. Anderson. It was 20,000,000l. in 1786. Chalmers. 37,000,000l. in 1800. Phillips. New silver coinage 1816 1 Jan. 1826 The gold is 28,000,000l., and the rest of the metallic 1830 184 Estimated as approaching, in gold and silver, 60,000,000!. Silver coined in London, value 11,108,265l. 158. 1853 1816-40 1837-47 1842 Napier's coin-weighing machine at the bank of Light gold called in England constructed The law respecting coinage offences consolidated 4 April, The first gold coins on certain record, struck 42 Gold florin first struck, Edw. III. (Camden) He introduced gold 68. pieces, and nobles of 6s. 8d. 1844 1861 1870 1257 1337 1344 Edw. IV. coined angels with a figure of Michael and Shillings first coined (Dr. Kelly) Crowns and half-crowns coined First large copper coinage, putting an end to the circulation of private leaden pieces, &c. Modern milling introduced Halfpence and farthings Copper coined by government 1553 1560 1562 1620 1631 1665 1672 Guineas (value 208.), 2-guinea and 5-guinea pieces, 1663-64 Gold 78.-pieces authorised 29 Nov. Sovereigns, new coinage, St. George and dragon Four-penny pieces (see Groat) coined Three-penny pieces: 3,299,208 coined. Half-farthings coined Silver florin (28.) No crowns or half-crowns coined since Bronze coinage issued 1716 1 Dec., 1860 St. George and dragon sovereigns re-issued 14 Jan. 1871 a COLCHESTER (Essex), Camelodunum, Roman station, obtained its first charter from Richard I., 1189. Its sixteen churches and all its buildings sustained great damage at the ten weeks' siege, June-Aug. 1648. Two of its defenders, sir George Lisle and sir Charles Lucas, were tried and shot after surrendering. The baize manufacture was established here, 1660. Anderson. The railway to London was opened in 1843. COLD. The extremes of heat and cold are found to produce the same perceptions on the skin, and when mercury is frozen at forty degrees below zero, the sensation is the same as touching red-hot iron. During the hard frost in 1740, a palace of ice was built at St. Petersburg. Greig. Quicksilver was frozen hard at Moscow, 13 Jan. 1810. Perhaps the coldest day ever known in London was 25 Dec. 1796, when the thermometer was 16° below zero. On Jan. 1854, the thermometer marked 4° below zero, Fahrenheit; on 25 Dec. 1860, it fell in some places to 18 and in others to 15° below zero; at Torquay, Devon, 20° below zero. From 23 to 30 Dec. the cold was excessive. On 4 Jan. 1867, the thermometer stood at 3° below zero at Hammersmith and Hornsey, near London; on 7 Jan., at 55° above; see Frosts, Ice, Congelation, Regelation. COLDINGHAM, near Berwick, is celebrated for the heroism of its nuns, who, on the attack of the Danes, in order to preserve their chastity, cut off their noses and lips. The Danes burnt the whole sisterhood, with the abbess Ebba, in their monastery, 870. COLDSTREAM GUARDS. General Monk, before marching from Scotland into England to £5,833,000 restore Charles II., raised this regiment at Coldstream, at the confluence of the Leet and Tweed, 1660. 8,725,920 11,966,576 gold 74,501,586 41,782,815 10.827,603 [The quantity of gold that passed through the Mint, since the accession of queen Elizabeth in 1558, to the beginning of 1840, is 3,353.561 pounds weight, troy. Of this, nearly one-half was coined in the reign of George III., namely, 1,593,078 pounds weight, troy.] Victoria, from 1837 to 1848, gold, 29,886,4571.; weight, 746,452 lbs.; silver, 2,440,614l.; copper, 43,7431. 1848-1852, gold, silver, and copper, 19,838,377. Gold coined in 1853 (when Australian gold came in), 12,664,125l.; in 1854, 4,354,201l.; in 1855, 9,245,264.; in 1856, 6,476,060l. Coined in 1859, 1,547,603 sovereigns, and 2,203,813 halfsovereigns. Value of ten years' (1849-50) gold coinage, 54,490,2651. Coined from July, 1854, to 31 Dec. 1860: gold, 27,632,039.; silver, 2,432,116l. Coined in 1861: gold, 8,053,069l.; silver, 209,4841.; bronze, 273,5781. 138. 4d. Coined in 1862: gold, 7,836,4137.; silver, 4,035,412l.; Coined in 1866: gold, 5,076,6761.; silver, 493,4167.; COINING. Originally the metal was placed between two steel dies, and struck by a hammer. In 1553, a mill, invented by Antoine Brucher, introduced into England, 1562. An engine invented by Balancier, 1617. Great improvements effected by Boulton and Watt, at Soho, 1788. The erection of the Mint machinery, London, began 1811. COLIN, see Kolin. COLISEUM or COLOSSEUM, at Rome, an elliptical amphitheatre, of which the external diameter is 1641 Italian feet, supposed to have been able to contain 80,000 spectators of the fights with wild beasts, and other sports in the arena. It was erected between 75 (some say 77) and 80, by the emperors Vespasian and Titus, at an expense sufficient to have built a metropolis. Its remains are very imposing. The COLLAR, a very ancient ornament. Roman hero Titus Manlius slew a gigantic Gaul in single combat, and put his torques (twisted chain or collar) on his own neck, and was hence surnamed Torquatus, 361 B.C. A collar is part of the ensigns of the order of knighthood. That of the order of the garter is described, and its wearing enjoined, in the statutes of Henry VIII., 24 April, 1522; but a collar had been previously worn. Ashmole. The collar of SS. was adopted by Henry IV., and became a Lancastrian badge; some consider the letters stand for "souveraigne," in reference to his claim to the crown. Some writers consider SS. to be in honour of St. Simplicius, a martyr. The order of the Collar or Necklace (or Annonciada) was instituted by Amadeus VI. of Savoy, about 1360. COLLECTS, short prayers, very ancient, introduced into the Roman service by pope Gelasius, about 493, and into the English liturgy in 1548. The king of England coming into Normandy, appointed a collect for the relief of the Holy Land, 1166. Rapin. |