been fired upon by the French themselves, 13 Oct. 1870.

CLOUDS consist of minute particles of water, often in a frozen state, floating in the air. In 1803 Mr. Luke Howard published his classification of clouds, now generally adopted, consisting of three primary forms-cirrus, cumulus, and stratus; three compounds of these forms; and the nimbus or black rain clouds (cumulo-cirro-stratus.) A new edition of Howard's Essay on the Clouds appeared in 1865.

CLOVESHO0 (now Cliff), Kent. Here was held an important council of nobility and clergy concerning the government and discipline of the church, Sept. 747; and others were held here, 800, 803, 822, 824.

CLOYNE (S. Ireland), a bishopric, founded in the 6th century by St. Coleman, was in 1431 united to that of Cork, and so continued for 200 years. It was united with that of Cork and Ross, 1834; see Bishops.

CLUBMEN, associations founded in the southern and western counties of England, to restrain the excesses of the armies during the civil wars, 1642-9. They professed neutrality, but inclined towards the king, and were considered enemies by his opponents.

CLUBS, originally consisted of a small number of persons of kindred tastes and pursuits, who met together at stated times for social intercourse. The club at the Mermaid tavern, established about the end of the 16th century, consisted of Raleigh, Shakspeare, and others. Ben Jonson set up a club at the Devil tavern. Addison, Steele, and others, frequently met at Button's coffee-house, as described in the Spectator. The present' London clubs, some comprising 300, others about 1500 members, possess handsome luxuriously furnished edifices in or near Pall Mall. The members obtain choice viands and wines at moderate charges, and many clubs possess excellent libraries, particularly the Athenæum (which see). The annual payment varies from 67. to 11. 118.; the entrance fee from 97. 98. to 31. 118. The following are the principal clubs; several are described in separate articles :

1659

1700 . 1734 . 1735

1736

1743

Literary Club (which see), termed also "The Club," 1762

and Johnson's Club

Brooke's, originally Almack's (Whig) . Alfred (literary)

Guards'.

Arthur's, early in 18th century; house built

Roxburghe, London

United Service.

Travellers'

Union

United University

Bannatyne, Edinburgh

Athenæum (which see)

1764

1808-51

1 May, 1810 1811 1812

They were essentially political, and greatly conCLUBS, FRENCH. The first arose about 1782.

cerned in the revolution. The Club Breton became the celebrated Club des Jacobins, and the Club des Cordeliers comprised among its members Danton and Camille Desmoulins. From these two came the Mountain party which overthrew the Girondists in 1793, and fell in its turn in 1794. The clubs disappeared with the Directory in 1799. They were revived 1848 in considerable numbers, but did not attain to their former eminence, and were suppressed by decrees, 22 June, 1849, and 6 June, 1850. Bouillet.

CLUB-FOOT, a deformity due to the shortening of one or more of the muscles, although attempted to be relieved by Lorenz in 1784, by cutting the tendo Achillis, was not effectually cured till 1831, when Stromeyer of Erlangen cured Dr. Little by dividing the tendons of the contracted muscles with a very thin knife.

CLUGNY or CLUNY, ABBEY OF, in France, formerly most magnificent, founded by Benedictines, under the abbot Bern, about 910, and sustained afterwards by William, duke of Berry and Aquitaine. English foundations for Cluniac monks were instituted soon after.

CLYDE AND FORTH WALL was built

by Agricola, 84. The Forth and Clyde CANAL was commenced by Mr. Smeaton, 10 July, 1768, and was opened 28 July, 1790. It forms a communication between the seas on the eastern and western coasts of Scotland.

CNIDUS, in Caria, Asia Minor: near here Conon the Athenian defeated the Lacedæmonian fleet, under Peisander, 394 B.C.

Beckmann

1819

1821

1822

1823 1824

1828

1829

lington and others

1831

COAL. It is contended, with much seeming truth, that coal, although not mentioned by the *There are five kinds of fossil fuel: anthracite, coal, lignite, bituminous shale, and bitumen. No satisfactory definition of coal has yet been given. The composition of wood is 491 carbon, 6'3 hydrogen, 44'6 oxygen; of coal 82 6 carbon, 5'6 hydrogen, 11'8 oxygen.

about 38 killed, 8 Nov.; Pelsall-hall, Walsall, about 22 drowned by influx of water from an old working 14 Nov. 1873. Explosion at Talke colliery, N. Staffordshire, Coal and Iron Company's works, about 20 killed, 18 Feb. COAL EXCHANGE, London, established by 47 Geo. III. c. 68 (1807). The present building (a most interesting structure) was erected by Mr. J. B. Bunning, and opened by prince Albert 30 Oct. 1849 COAL-WHIPPERS' BOARD, to protect the men employed in unloading coal-vessels from publicans, formed by an act of parliament in 1843, lasted till 1856, when the coal-owners themselves established a whipping office.

COALITIONS AGAINST FRANCE generally arose through England subsidising the great powers

of the continent.

COALITION MINISTRIES, see Aberdeen, Grenville II., Pelham, and Portland.

COAST GUARD. In 1856, the raising and governing this body was transferred to the admiralty. A coast brigade of artillery was established in Nov. 1859.-COAST VOLUNTEERS, see under Navy of England.

COASTING TRADE of Great Britain thrown open to all nations by 17 Vict. c. 5, 1854.

COBALT, a rare mineral found among the veins of ores, or in the fissures of stone, at an early date, in the mines of Cornwall, where the workman call it mundic. Hill. It was distinguished as a metal by Brandt, in 1733.

COBDEN CLUB, instituted to spread and develop Cobden's principles; held first dinner, W. E. Gladstone in the chair, 21 July, 1866. The statue of Richard Cobden, at Camden town, was inaugurated, 27 June, 1868.

COBURG, see Saxe Coburg. COCA, a powerful narcotic existing in the Erythoxylon Coca a South American plant; men taking a little of this are enabled to endure hard labour without any food for six or seven days and nights. Dr. Mantegazza's prize essay in German was published at Vienna in 1849.

COCCEIANS, a small sect founded by John Cocceius, of Bremen, in the seventeenth century. He held, amongst other opinions, that of a visible reign of Christ in this world, after a general conversion of the Jews and all other people to the Christian faith. He died in 1665.

COCHEREL (near Evreux, N. W. France). Here Bertrand du Guesclin defeated the king of Navarre, and took prisoner the captal de Buch, 16 May, 1364.

COCHIN (India), held by the Portuguese, 1503; by the Dutch, 1663; by Hyder Ali, 1776; taken by the British, 1796; ceded to them, 1814.-COCHIN CHINA, see Anam.

COCHINEAL INSECT (Coccus cacti), deriving its colour from feeding on the cactus, became known to the Spaniards soon after their conquest of Mexico in 1518. Cochineal was brought to Europe about 1523, but was not known in Italy in 1548, although the art of dyeing then flourished there.

In 1858 it was cultivated successfully in Teneriffe, the vines having failed through disease. 260.000 lbs. of cochineal were imported into England in 1830; 1,081,776 lbs. in 1845; 2.360,000 lbs. in 1850; and 3,034,976 lbs. in 1859. Duty repealed 1845.

COCKER'S ARITHMETIC. Edward Cocker, an eminent penman born 1631, died 1677, compiled a book which first appeared in 1677, edited by John Hawkins.

COCK-FIGHTING, practised by the Greeks, was brought by the Romans into England. William Fitz-Stephen, in the reign of Henry II., describes cock-fighting as the sport of school-boys on ShroveTuesday. It was prohibited by Edward III. 1365; by Henry VIII.; and by Cromwell, 1653, and latterly in 1849. Part of the site of Drury-lane theatre was a cock-pit in the reign of James I.; and the Cock-pit at Whitehall was erected by Charles II. Till lately there was a Cock-pit-Royal in St. James's Park; but the governors of Christ's Hospital would not renew the lease for the building. Cock-fighting is now forbidden by law. On 22 April, 1865, 34 persons were fined at Marlborough-street policeoffice, for being present at a cock-fight. It is now popular in New York (1873).

COCK-LANE GHOST, an imposition practised by William Parsons, his wife, and daughter, by means of a female ventriloquist, during 1760 and 1761, at No. 33, Cock-lane, London, was at length detected, and the parents were condemned to the pillory and imprisonment, 10 July, 1762.

COCOA or CACAO, the kernel or seed of Theocountry shortly after the discovery of Mexico, where broma cacao (Linn.), was introduced into this it is an article of diet. From cocoa is produced chocolate. The cocoa imported into the United Kingdom, chiefly from the British West Indies and Guiana, was in 1849, 1,989.477 lbs.; in 1855, 7,343,458 lbs.; in 1861, 9,080,288 lbs.; in 1866, 10,308,298 lbs.; in 1870, 14,793,950 lbs.; about half for home consumption.

COCOA-NUT TREE (Cocos nucifera, Linn.), supplies the Indians with almost all they need, as bread, water, wine, vinegar, brandy, milk, oil, basins, baskets, paper, masts for ships, sails, cordhoney, sugar, needles, clothes, thread, cups, spoons, age, nails, covering for their houses, &c. Ray. In Sept. 1829, Mr. Soames patented his mode of procuring stearine and elaine from cocoa-nut oil. It is said that 32 tons of candles have been made in a month from these materials at the Belmont works, Lambeth.

CODES, see Laws. Alfrenus Varus, the civilian, first collected the Roman laws about 66 B.C.; and Servius Sulpicius, the civilian, embodied them about 53 B.C. The Gregorian and Hermoginian codes were published A.D. 290; the Theodosian code commenced by order of Theodosius II. in 429; and published for the eastern empire in 438. stitutions promulgated as the law of the west in In 447 he transmitted to Valentinian his new con448. The celebrated code of the emperor Justinian in 529-a digest from this last made in 533; see Basilica. Alfred's code is the foundation of the

* Mr. Ardesoif, a gentleman of large fortune and great hospitality, who was almost unrivalled in the splendour of his equipages, had a favourite cock, upon which he had won many profitable matches. The last wager he laid upon this cock he lost, which so enraged him, A delirious fever, the result of his rage and inebriety, in that in a fit of passion he thrust the bird into the fire. three days put an end to his life. He died at Tottenham, near London, 4 April, 1788.

common law of England, 887.-The CODE NAPOLEON, the civil code of France, was promulgated from 1803 to 1810. The emperor considered it his most enduring monument. It was prepared under his supervision by the most eminent jurists, from the 400 systems previously existing, and has been adopted by other countries.

CODEX, see under Bible, Alexandrian, &c.
CODFISH, see Holland, 1347.

COD-LIVER OIL was recommended as a remedy for chronic rheumatism by Dr. Percival in 1782, and for diseases of the lungs about 1833. De Jongh's treatise on cod liver was published in Latin, 1844; in English, 1849.

CŒUR DE LION or THE LION-HEARTED, a surname given to Richard I. of England, on account of his courage about 1192; and also to Louis VIII. of France, who signalised himself in the crusades, and in his wars against England, about 1223.

COFFEE. The tree was conveyed from Mocha in Arabia to Holland about 1616; and carried to the West Indies in 1726. First cultivated at Surinam by the Dutch, 1718. The culture was encouraged in the plantations about 1732, and the British and French colonies now grow coffee abundantly. Its use as a beverage is traced to the Persians. It came into great repute in Arabia Felix, about 1454; and passed thence into Egypt and Syria, and thence (in 1511) to Constantinople, where a coffee-house was opened in 1551. M. Thevenot, the traveller, first brought it to France, 1662. Chambers. Coffee brought into England by Mr. Nathaniel Canopus, a Cretan, who made it his common beverage at Balliol college, Oxford, 1641. Anderson.

The quantity of coffee imported into these realms in 1852, 54,935,510 lbs. ; in 1860, 82,767,746 lbs. ; in 1866, 127,044,816 lbs. ; in 1870, 179,901,864 lbs. The first coffee-house in England was kept by a Jew, named Jacobs, in Oxford

Mr. Edwards, an English turkey merchant, brought home with him Pasquet, a Greek servant, who opened the first coffee-house in London, in Georgeyard, Lombard-street

Pasquet afterwards went to Holland, and opened the first house in that country. Anderson. Rainbow coffee-house, Temple-bar, represented as a

1650

1652

1657

1676 1869

2 May, 1872

COFFERER OF THE HOUSEHOLD, formerly an officer of state, and a member of the privy council, who had special charge of the other officers of the household. Sir Henry Cocks was cofferer to queen Elizabeth. In 1782 the office was suppressed.

COFFINS. Athenian heroes were buried in coffins of cedar; owing to its aromatic and incorruptible qualities. Thucydides. Coffins of marble and stone were used by the Romans. Alexander is said to have been buried in one of gold; and glass coffins have been found in England. Gough. The earliest record of wooden coffins amongst us is that of the burial of king Arthur in an entire trunk of oak hollowed, 542. Asser. Patent coffins were invented in 1796; air-tight metallic coffins advertised at Birmingham in 1861.

COHORT. A division of the Roman army consisting of about 420 men, with 300 cavalry, divided into centuries. It was the sixth part of a legion.

COIF. The serjeant's coif was originally an iron scull-cap, worn by knights under their helmets. The coif was introduced before 1259, and was used to hide the tonsure of such renegade clergymen as chose to remain advocates in the secular courts, notwithstanding their prohibition by canon. Blackstone. The coif was at first a thin linen cover gathered together in the form of a skull or helmet, the material being afterwards changed into white silk, and the form eventually into the black patch at the top of the forensic wig, which is now the distinguishing mark of the degree of serjeant-at-law. Foss's Lives of the Judges.

COIMBRA was made the capital of Portugal by Alfonso, the first king, 1139. The only Portuguese university was transferred from Lisbon to Coimbra in 1308; finally settled in 1527. In a convent here, Alfonso IV. caused Iñez de Castro, at first mistress and afterwards wife of his son Pedro, to be cruelly murdered in 1355.

COIN. Homer speaks of brass money, 1184 B.C. The invention of coin is ascribed to the Lydians, whose money was of gold and silver. Both were coined by Pheidon, tyrant of Argos, about 862 B.C. Money was coined at Rome under Servius Tullius, about 573 B.C. The most ancient known coins are Macedonian of the 5th century B.C. Brass money only was in use at Rome previously to 269 B.C. (when Fabius Pictor coined silver). Gold was coined 206 B.C. 1ron money was used in Sparta, and iron and tin in Britain. Dufresnoy. In the earlier days of Rome the heads were those of deities, or of those who had received divine honours. Julius Cæsar first obtained permission of the senate to place his portrait on the coins, and the example was soon followed. The Anglo-Saxons coined silver. Rev. Roger Ruding's "Annals of the Coinage of Great Britain," published 1817-40. The gold and silver coinage in the world is about 250,000,000l. silver, and 150,000,000l. gold. Times, 25 June, 1852; see Gold, Silver, Copper and Guineas, and other coins under names. An international conference relative to a universal system of coinage met at Paris in 1867; and a royal commission was appointed in London, Feb. 1868.

The first coinage in England was under the Romans at Camalodunum, or Colchester. English coin. was of different shapes, as square, oblong, and round, until the middle ages, when round coin only was used.

Coin was made sterling in 1216, before which time rents were mostly paid in kind, and money was found only in the coffers of the barons. Stow.

and genuine issued

1547-53

1560

Coinage reformed by Edward VI. Queen Elizabeth caused the base coin to be recalled During the reigns of the Stuarts the coinage was greatly debased by clipping, &c. A commission (lord Somers, sir Isaac Newton, and John Locke) was appointed by William III. to reform the coinage; an act was passed, withdrawing the debased coin from circulation, and 1,200,000l. was raised by a house duty to defray the expense 1695-96 Broad-pieces called in, and re-coined into guineas. 1732 The gold-coin brought into the Mint by proclamation, amounted to about 15.563,5931.; the expense of collecting, melting, and recoining it, was 754,019l.

1773-6

Act for weighing gold coin passed. 13 June, 1774

The coin of the realm valued at about 12,000,000l.

in 1711. Davenant. At 16,000,000l. in 1762. Anderson. It was 20,000,000l. in 1786. Chalmers. 37,000,000l. in 1800. Phillips. New silver coinage

1816

1 Jan. 1826

The gold is 28,000,000l., and the rest of the metallic
English and Irish money assimilated.
currency is 13,000,000l. Duke of Wellington
Metallic currency calculated to reach 45,000,ocol.

1830

184