COMORN, see Komorn. COMPANIES. Among the earliest commercial companies in England may be named the company was the merchants of St. Thomas à Becket, The second Steel-yard society, established 1232. turers, incorporated by Elizabeth, 1564. The folin 1248. Stow. The third was the Merchant Advenlowing are the city companies of London; the first twelve are the chief, and are styled "the Honourable." Several companies are extinct, and many dates are doubtful. In 1869 the gross income of the endowed charities of the city companies was stated to be above 99,000l.: 1. Mercers 2. Grocers COMMONWEALTH OF ENGLAND the term applied to the interregnum between the death of Charles I. and the restoration of Charles II. A republic was established at the execution of Charles I., 30 Jan. 1649,-a new oath called the "Engagement" was framed, which the people were obliged to take.* Salmon. Oliver Cromwell was made protector, 16 Dec. 1653; succeeded by his son Richard, 3 Sept. 1658. Monarchy was restored, and Charles II. entered London, 29 May, 1660. COMMUNALISTS, or COMMUNISTS, propose to divide France into about a thousand small thoroughly independent states, with councils elected by all the population, Paris to be the ruling head. They declare that capital and its holders must be adapted to nobler uses, or cease to exist. Their creed is stated to be atheism and materialism. They are intimately connected with the International Society of workmen (see Workmen), and with the communists or socialists (1871-3). COMMUNES, in France, are territorial divisions under a mayor. In the 11th century the name was given to combinations of citizens, favoured by the crown, against the exactions of the nobles. In 1356 Stephen Marcel, during the English invasion, vainly endeavoured to establish a confederation of sovereign cities, having Paris as the governing head; and for six months it was really governed by a commune in 1588. After the insurrection of July, 1789, the revolutionary committee which replaced the city council took the name of commune of Paris," Péthion being mayor. It met at the Hôtel de Ville, and was definitively constituted, 21 May, 1791. It had great power under Robespierre, and fell with him 17 July, 1794; being replaced by twelve municipalities. The commune of Paris was proclaimed 28 March, 1871, during the insurrection, which began 18 March, and ended with the capture of the city by the government troops, 28 May following. For the events of the communal rule in Paris, see France, 1871. COMMUNION, a name given to the ordinance of the Lord's supper, 1 Cor. x. 16. Communicating under the form of bread alone is said to have had its rise in the west, under pope Urban II., 1096. The cup was first denied to the laity by the council of Constance, 1414-18. The fourth Lateran council, 1215, decreed that every believer should receive the communion at least at Easter. The communion service of the church of England was set forth in 1549. * By this oath they swore to be true and faithful to the Commonwealth, without king or house of lords. The statues of Charles were next day demolished, particularly that at the Royal Exchange, and one at the west end of St. Paul's; and in their room the following inscription was conspicuously set up:-"Exit Tyrannus Regum ultimus, Anno Libertatis Anglia Restitutie Primo, Anno Dom., 1648, Jan. 30." 13. Dyers 14. Brewers 15. Leather-sellers 16. Pewterers 17. Barber-Surgeons 18. Cutlers 19. Bakers. 20. Wax-chandlers and 1482 59. Shipwrights 1447 55. Farriers 1488 . 1617 . 1610 60. Spectacle-makers. 1630 1308 65. Framework knit 1417 ters . 1307 66. Silk-throwsters 1484 67. Silk-men 68. Pin-makers 21. Tallow-chandlers. 1463 24. 28. Painter-stainers 30. Masons 31. Plumbers 32. Inn-holders 33. Founders 34. Poulterers 35. Cooks 36. Coopers 37. Tilers and bricklayers 38. Bowyers. 39. Fletchers 40. Blacksmiths 41. Joiners. 42. Weavers. 43. Woolmen 44. Scriveners 45. Fruiterers 1604 . 1664 69. Needle-makers 1656 1616 1448 1604 72. Tinplate-workers. 1670 1280 73. Wheelwrights 1670 1344 74. Distillers. . 1410 75. Hatband-makers. 1638 1580 76. Patten-makers 1670 1605 77. Glass-sellers 70. Gardeners 1677 78. Tobacco - pipe 1611 makers . 1515 79. Coach and Har1614 ness makers 1677 . 1503 80. Gunmakers 1638 wire-drawers 1623 82. Bowstring-makers 1568 83. Card-makers 1620 84. Fan-makers 1536 85. Wood-mongers 1577 86. Starch-makers 1564 87. Fishermen 1164 88. Parish clerks 89. Carmen 1616 90. Porters 1604 91. Watermen * * 1629 1709 1632 1687 1232 1556 COMPANIES ACT, passed 1862, was amended and continued, 20 Aug. 1867. been early known to the Chinese, 1115 B.C., and COMPASS, MARINER'S, said to have brought to Europe by Marco Polo, a Venetian, 1260. Flavio Gioja, of Amalfi, a navigator, of Bubble companies have been formed, commonly by designing persons. Law's bubble, in 1720-1, was perhaps the most extraordinary of its kind, and the South Sea Bubble, in the same year, was scarcely less memorable for its ruin of thousands of families. Many companies were established in these countries in 1824 and 1825, and turned out to be bubbles. Immense losses were incurred by individuals, and the families of thousands of speculators were totally ruined. Many railway enterprises (1844-5) were termed bubbles. See Law's Bubble; South Sea; Railways; Joint-Stock Companies. Naples, is said to have introduced the suspension of the needle, 1302. The compass is also said to have been known to the Swedes in the time of king Jarl Birger, 1250. Its variation was discovered first by Columbus, 1492; afterwards by Sebastian Cabot, 1540. The compass box and hanging compass used by navigators were invented by William Barlowe, an English divine and natural philosopher, in 1608; see Magnetism. The measuring compass was invented by Jost Bing, of Hesse, in 1602. COMPETITIVE EXAMINATIONS, see Civil Service. COMPIEGNE, a French city north of Paris, the residence of the Carlovingian kings. During the siege, Joan of Arc was captured by the Burgundians, 25 May, 1430, and given up to the English for money. The emperor Napoleon III. and the king of Prussia met here on 6 Oct. 1861. COMPLUTENSIAN BIBLE, see Polyglot. COMPOSITE ORDER, a mixture of the Corinthian and Ionic, and also called the Roman order, is of uncertain date. COMPOUND HOUSEHOLDERS (in regard to the payment of rates) were constituted by the Small Tenements act of 1851. Their position, with regard to the suffrage, caused much discussion during the passing of the Reform act in 1867; and their claims were rejected. COMPOUND RADICLE, in organic chemistry, is a substance which although containing two or more elements, in ordinary circumstances performs the part of an element. The Radical or Binary theory was propounded by Berzelius, 1833, and by Liebig, 1838; and modified in the nucleus theory of Aug. Laurent, 1836. The first compound radicle isolated was cyanogen (which see), by GayLussac, in 1815; see Amyl, Ethyl, and Methyl as other examples. COMPROMISE, see Breda. COMTE PHILOSOPHY, see Positive Philosophy. CONCEPTION, IMMACULATE. A festival (on 8 Dec.) appointed in 1389, observed in the Roman Catholic Church in honour of the Virgin Mary's having been conceived and born immaculate, or without original sin. Opposition to this doctrine was forbidden by decree of pope Paul V. in 1617, confirmed by Gregory XV. and Alexander VII. Hénault. On 8 Dec. 1854, pope Pius IX. promulgated a bull, declaring this dogma to be an article of faith, and charging with heresy those who should doubt it or speak against it.-The CONCEPTIONISTS were an order of nuns in Italy, established in 1488; see Santiago. CONCERTINA, a musical instrument invented by prof. now sir Charles Wheatstone, about 1825, and improved by Mr. G. Case. The sounds are produced by free vibrating metal springs. CONCERTS. The Filarmonia gave concerts at Vicenza in the 16th century. The first public subscription concert was performed at Oxford in 1665; the first in London is said to have been in 1672. The Academy of Ancient Music, which introduced concerts in London, began in 1710; the Concerts of Ancient Music in 1776; and the present Philharmonic Society in 1813; see Music; Crystal The statement that the fleur-de-lis was made the ornament of the northern point of the compass in com Palace; and Handel. Colossal peace concerts were held at Boston, U.S., 15 June, &c. 1869; 17 June to 4 July, 1872; see Boston. CONCHOLOGY, the science of shells, is mentioned by Aristotle and Pliny. It was first reduced to a system by John Daniel Major, of Kiel, who published his classification of the Testacea in 1675. Lister's system was published in 1685; and that of Largius in 1722. Johnson's Introduction (1850) and Sowerby's Manual of Conchology (1842), are useful. Forbes and Hanley's "British Mollusca and their Shells" (1848-53) is a magnificent work. CONCILIATION COUNCILS, see Councils. CONCLAVE. A range of small cells in the hall of the Vatican, or palace of the pope of Rome, where the cardinals usually meet to elect a pope, and also the assembly of the cardinals shut up for the purpose. Clement IV. having died at Viterbo in 1268, the cardinals were nearly three years unable to agree in the choice of a successor, and were on the point of breaking up, when the magistrates, by the advice of St. Bonaventura, shut the gates of their city, and locked up the cardinals till they agreed, 1271. CONCORD (Massachusetts, N. America). Near here was fought the battle of Lexington (which see), 19 April, 1775. CONCORDANCE. An index or alphabetical catalogue of all the words and also a chronological account of all the transactions in the Bible. The first concordance was made under the direction of Hugo de St. Caro, who employed as many as 500 monks upon it, 1247. Abbé Lenglet. It was based on one compiled by Anthony of Padua. Marbeck's concordance was published, 1550. Two Concordances (with royal privileges), by Rob. F. Herrey, appeared in 1578. Cruden's Concordance was published in London in 1737. The Index to the Bible, published by the Queen's printers, was prepared by B. Vincent, editor of this volume, and completed in May, 1848. Verbal indexes accompany good editions of the ancient classics. An index to Shakspeare, by Ayscough, appeared in 1790; another by Twiss in 1805; and Mrs. Cowden Clarke's (late Mary Novello) complete concordance to Shakspeare (on which she spent 16 years' labour) in 1847. Todd's verbal index to Milton, 1809. Cleveland's concordance to Milton, 1867. Brightwell's concordance to Tennyson's works, 1869. CONCORDAT. An instrument of agreement between a prince and the pope, usually concerning benefices. The concordat between the emperor Henry V. of Germany and pope Calixtus II., in 1122, has been regarded as the fundamental law of the church in Germany. The concordat between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pius VII., signed at Paris, 15 July, 1801, re-established the Catholic church and the papal authority in France. Napoleon was made in effect the head of the Gallican church, as bishops were to have their appointments from him, and their investiture from the pope. Another concordat between the same persons was signed at Fontainebleau, 25 Jan. 1813. These were almost nullified by another, 22 Nov. 1817. A concordat, signed 18 Aug. 1855, between Austria and Rome, by which a great deal of the liberty of the Austrian church was given up to the papacy, caused much dissatisfaction. In 1868 it was vir pliment to Charles, the king of Naples at the time of tually abolished by the legislatures of Hungary the discovery, has been contradicted. and Austria. CONCUBINES were tolerated among the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, but strictly forbidden by Christ (Mark x., I Cor. vii. 2). They are mentioned as having been allowed to the priests, 1132; see Morganatic Marriages. CONDENSATION, see Gas. CONDOTTIERI, conductors or leaders of mercenaries, termed free companies or lances, which became so troublesome in Italy, that the cities formed a league to suppress them in 1342. Many ravaged France after the peace of Bretigny, in 1360. CONDUITS. Two remarkable conduits, among a number of others in London, existed early in Cheapside. The "great conduit" was the first cistern of lead erected in the city, and was built in 1285. At the procession of Anna Boleyn, on the occasion of her marriage, it ran with white and claret wine all the afternoon, I June, 1533. Stow. CONFEDERATE STATES OF NORTH AMERICA. The efforts of the Southern States for the extension of slavery, and the zeal of the Northern States for its abolition, with the consequent political dissensions, led to the great secession of 1860-1. On 4 Nov. 1860, Abraham Lincoln, the Republican or Abolitionist candidate, was elected president of the United States. Hitherto, a president in the interest of the South had been elected. On 20 Dec., South Carolina seceded from the Union; and soon after Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Georgia, Louisiana, Texas, Virginia (except West Virginia), Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina also. Jefferson Davis was inaugurated president of the Southern Confederacy at Montgomery in Alabama, 18 Feb. 1861. For the events of the war which ensued, and the restoration of the Southern States to the Union, see United States, 1861-5. CONFEDERATION AT PARIS, 14 July, 1790; see Champ de Mars, and Bastille. CONFEDERATION OF THE RHINE, the League of the Germanic States, formed by Napoleon Bonaparte, 12 July, 1806, when he abolished the Holy Roman Empire, and the emperor of Germany became emperor of Austria. In Dec. it consisted of France, Bavaria, Wurtemberg, Saxony, and Westphalia; seven grand duchies; six duchies; and twenty principalities. The princes collectively engaged to raise 258,000 troops to serve in case of war, and established a diet at Frankfort. This league terminated with the career of Bonaparte in 1814; and in 1815 it was replaced by the Germanic Confederation (which see, and Germany). CONFERENCES, ECCLESIASTICAL. One was held at Hampton Court palace, between the prelates of the church of England and the dissenting ministers, in order to effect a general union, at the instance of the king, James I., 14-16 Jan. 1604. It led to the new translation of the Bible, now in general use in England; executed in 1607-11. Some alterations in the church liturgy were agreed upon; but these not satisfying the dissenters, nothing more was done.-Another conference of the bishops and presbyterian ministers, with the same view, was held in the Savoy, 15 April to 25 July, 1661. The dissenters' objections were generally disallowed, but some alterations were recommended in the Prayer-book; see Wesleyans. | CONFESSIONS OF FAITH, or CREEDS; see Apostles', Nicene (325), and Athanasian (about The confession of faith of the Greek church was 434) Creeds. presented to Mahommed II. in 1453. This gave way in 1643 to one composed by Mogila, metropolitan of Kiev, which is the present standard The creed of Pius VI., 'composed of the Nicene creed, of the Russo-Greek church. with additional articles which embody all the peculiar dogmas of the Roman Catholic church, published by the council of Trent The church of England retains the Apostles', 1564 Nicene, and Athanasian creeds, with articles :- The confession of Augsburg (that of the Lutherans) The congregational dissenters published a declaration of faith 1579 1647 1833 between Louis XI. of France and the dukes of CONGE D'ÉLIRE (permission to elect), the licence given by the sovereign as bead of the church, particularly bishops; the right asserted by Henry to chapters and other bodies, to elect dignitaries, VIII., 1535. After the interdict of the pope upon made an arrangement with the clergy for the England had been removed in 1214, king John election of bishops. CONGELATION, the act of freezing. Ice mixtures, by Mr. Walker, in 1783. Quicksilver was produced in summer by means of chemical Leslie froze water in an air-pump by placing a was frozen without snow or ice, in 1787. In 1810 vessel of sulphuric acid under it. Numerous freezing mixtures have been discovered since. Intense cold is produced by the aerification of liquefied carbonic acid gas. In 1857 Mr. Harrison patented a machine for manufacturing ice for commercial made large blocks. In 1860, M. Carré devised a purposes, by means of ether and salt water, and method of freezing to 60° below zero by making water in a close vessel absorb and give off the gas ammonia. Siebe's ice-making machine exhibited much admiration. at the International Exhibition of 1862, excited CONGREGATION OF THE LORD, a name taken by the Scotch reformers, headed by John Knox about 1546. Their leaders (the earls of Glencairn, Argyle, Morton, and others) called "lords of the congregation," signed the first bond or covenant which united the protestants under one association, 3 Dec. 1557. Tytler. CONGREGATIONALISTS, see Indepen CONFESSIONAL, see Auricular Confession. dents. Frankfort (see Germany) 1643-8 1676-8 1697 1713 1728 8 April,, 1793 9 Dec. 1797-9 5 Feb. 3 Nov. 9 Oct. I Aug. 20 Oct. 1814 1818 1819 1820 6 May, 1821 25 Aug. 1822 16 Jan.-22 April, 1856 16-31 Aug. 1863 See Alliances, Conventions, &c. The first general CONGRESS of the UNITED STATES of AMERICA, preparatory to their declaration of independence, when strong resolutions were passed, also a petition to the king, and an address to the people of England, was held, 5 Sept. 1774. The second was held, 10 May, 1775; the third, when the independence was declared 4 July, 1776 The first federal American congress, under the constitution, was held at New York; George Washington, president. March, 1789 The first congress of the seceding southern states was held at Montgomery, Alabama, 4 Feb.; it elected Jefferson Davis president of the confederate states on 9 Feb. For political reasons it adjourned on 24 May, to meet at Richmond, in Virginia, on 20 July, 1861 In 1863, the emperor Napoleon invited the sovereigns of Europe to a congress; which was declined by England 25 Nov., and only conditionally acceded to by other powers. He proposed a congress on the affairs of Italy and Rome in Nov. 1867, without effect. CONGREVE ROCKETS, see Rockets. CONIC SECTIONS. Their properties were probably known to the Greeks, four or five centuries before the Christian era, and their study was cultivated in the time of Plato, 390 B.C. The earliest treatise on them was written by Aristaus, about 330 B.C. Apollonius's eight books were written about 240 B.C. The parabola was applied to projectiles by Galileo; the ellipse to the orbit of planets by Kepler, and to comets by Newton. CONJURATION, see Witchcraft. laws and customs of the realm, in order to induce the submission of the people. Formerly our judges were accustomed to reprehend any gentleman at the bar who said casually William the conqueror, instead of William I. Selden. Maclise exhibited forty-two drawings on the events of the Norman conquest, in May, 1857. CONSCIENCE, LIBERTY OF, a principle of genuine Christianity; repudiated by Romanism, proclaimed by James II. for political purposes, 1687. CONSCIENCE CLAUSE, see Education. CONSCIENCE, COURTS OF, or OF REQUESTS for recovery of small debts, constituted by a stat. of Hen. VII. 1493, and re-organised by stat. 9 Hen. VIII. 1517. These courts were improved and amended by various acts; their jurisdiction in London reached to 5. and (until superseded by county-courts) to 40s. in other towns. The practice was by summons, and if the party did not appear, the commissioners had power to apprehend and commit; see County Courts. CONSCRIPT FATHERS (patres conscripti) the designation given to the Roman senators, because their names were written in the registers of the senate. CONSCRIPTION, a mode (derived from the Romans) adopted for recruiting armies on the continent. On 5 Sept. 1798, a military conscription was ordained in France, comprehending all the young men from 20 to 25 years of age: from whom selections were made. A conscription for 350,000 men took place in Jan. 1813, after the disastrous Russian campaign, and in Dec. same year, another for 300,000 after the battle of Leipsic. Estimated conscription, 1793-1813, 4, 103,000. The law of 1818 (modified in 1824, 1832 and 1868) required a certain annual contingent for each department. The conscription was enlarged and modified by the army bill which was enacted in Feb. 1868. The reorganisation of the army began in 1871, after the fatal war with Germany. CONSECRATION. Aaron and his sons were consecrated priests, 1490 B.C. (Lev. viii.) The Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii.) The Jewish tabernacle was dedicated, 1490 B.C., and consecration of churches begun in the 2nd century. Anciently the consecration of popes was deferred until the emperor had given his assent to their CONNAUGHT, W. Ireland; long a nominal election. Gregory IV. desired to have his election kingdom, divided into counties, 1590. CONNECTICUT granted to lord Say and Broke, 1630; see America and United States. CONNOR, Ireland. The bishopric was united to that of Down, 1442. The first prelate, Engus Macnisius, died 507. The united sees were added to Dromore on the death of its last bishop, 1842, in accordance with the Irish Church Temporalities act, passed 1833. CONQUEST, the era in British history, when William duke of Normandy overcame Harold II. at the battle of Hastings, 14 Oct. 1066, and obtained the crown which he asserted had been bequeathed to him by Edward the confessor (Edgar being the rightful heir). William has been erroneously styled the Conqueror, for he succeeded to the crown of England by compact. He defeated Harold, who was himself a usurper, but a large portion of the kingdom afterwards held out against him; and he, unlike a conqueror, took an oath to observe the confirmed by the emperor Louis, in 828. Hénault. The consecration of churches, places of burial, &c., is admitted in the reformed religion. An act relating to the consecration of churchyards passed 20 Aug. 1867, was amended in 1868. The form of consecrating bishops in the church of England is set forth in the prayer-book of 1549. Stow. CONSERVATION OF FORCE. The doctrine that no physical force can be created or destroyed, but may be transferred, is maintained by Faraday, Grove, Helmholtz, Tyndall, and other philosophers; see Correlation. CONSERVATIVES, a name of modern date, is given to, and accepted by a political party, whose leading principle is the preservation of our national institutions, since 1830. Conservative in popular language is now opposed to Liberal. Sir Robert Peel acknowledged himself a conservative when reproached by the Irish party in parliament with being an Orangeman; but the party that afterwards separated from him called their principles conservative in contradistinction to his, his policy and measures being changed.-The Conservative Club was founded in 1840; see Protectionists and Clubs. The party in the north of the United States which supported the president in his conciliatory efforts to re-establish the Union, Jan. 1866, were termed "Conservatives." A great meeting of the National Union of Conservative Associations was held at the Crystal Palace, 24 June, 1872. CONSERVATOIRES, a name given to establishments for the cultivation of music and the One was established at arts on the continent. Naples in 1537. The singing school at Paris, founded in 1784, and closed in 1789, was re-opened in 1793 as the "Institut National de Musique," and after being reorganised, was re-named "Conservatoire de Musique" in 1795, and flourished under Cherubini (1822-42). The Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers" was established in 1784. It includes a museum and library, and lectures are given to workmen there. ERTIES. CONSERVATORS OF THE PUBLIC LIBOfficers chosen in England to inspect the treasury and correct abuses in administration, 28 Hen. III. 1244. Rapin. Conservators were appointed to see the king's peace kept. Pardon. Conservators were formerly appointed in every seaport to take cognisance of all offences committed against the peace upon the main sea out of the liberty of the Cinque Ports. Bailey. CONSISTORIES for regulating ecclesiastical discipline and divine worship in the Lutheran church in Germany, were established at the reformation-the first at Wittenberg in 1542; other consistories were established after the peace of Augsburg in 1555. CONSISTORY COURT, anciently joined with the hundred court; and its original, as divided therefrom, is found in a law of William I., 1079, quoted by lord justice Coke. The chief and most ancient consistory court of the kingdom belongs to the see of Canterbury, and is called the Court of Arches (which see). CONSOLIDATED FUND was formed by "general," and "aggregate," combining the "South Sea funds," 1786. On 5 Jan. 1816, the exchequers of Great Britain and Ireland, previously separate, were amalgamated, forming "the consolidated fund of the United Kingdom.' CONSOLS, see Stocks. CONSORZIO NAZIONALE, see Italy, 1866. CONSPIRACIES. Among the recorded conspiracies, real or supposed, the following are the most remarkable: see Rebellions. Of the duke of Gloucester against Richard II. Of Lopez, a Jew, and others Of Patrick York, an Irish fencing-master hired by the Spaniards to kill the queen Of Walpole, a Jesuit, and Edward Squyer to poison the queen Tyrone's insurrection in Ireland . 1397 1415 Of Thistlewood and others, to assassinate the king's (See Cato-street) ministers. Of the Sepoys in India. (See India). See Rebellions, Chartists, &c. 1820 10 May, 1857 1858-68 CONSTABLE OF ENGLAND, LORD HIGH. The seventh great officer of the crown, and, with the earl marshal, formerly a judge of the court of chivalry, called, in the time of Henry IV., curia militaris, and subsequently the court of honour. The power of this officer was so great, that in 1389 a statute was passed for abridging it, and also the The office power of the earl marshal (which see). existed before the conquest, after which it went by inheritance to the earls of Hereford and Essex, and next in the line of Stafford. In 1521 it was forfeited by Edward Stafford, duke of Buckingham, attainted for high treason, and has never since been granted to any person, otherwise than pro hac vice (for this occasion), to attend at a coronation or trial by combat. The only instance of a trial by combat being ordered since this office fell into the hands of the crown, was that commanded between lord Reay and sir David Ramsay, in Nov. 1631; but the king prevented it. LORD HIGH CONSTABLES AT CORONATIONS. Queen Anne, Wriothesly, duke of Bedford William IV. Arthur, duke of Wellington 1702 1714 1727 1761 1821 1831 1838 CONSTABLE OF SCOTLAND, LORD HIGH. The office was instituted by David I. about 1147. The holder had the keeping of the king's sword, which the king, at his promotion, delivered to him naked (and hence the badge of the lord high constable is a naked sword); and the absolute command of the king's armies while in the field, in the absence of the king. The office was conferred heritably in 1321 on sir Gilbert Hay, created earl of Erroll, by Robert Bruce, and with his descendants it still remains, being expressly reserved by the treaty of union in 1707. The present earl of Erroll 1598 is the twenty-second lord high constable (1873). 1586 1594 1594 1599 1605 1607 Jan. 1657 Jan. 1661 CONSTABLES of Hundreds and Franchises, instituted in the reign of Edward I., 1285, are now called high constables. There are three kinds of constables, high, petty, and special; the high constable's jurisdiction extends to the whole hundred; |
