the petty constable's to the parish or liberty for which he is chosen; and the special constable is appointed for particular emergencies (as in April, 1848, on account of the Chartists). The general appointment of parish constables was made unnecessary by an act passed Aug. 1872. See Special Constables and Tower. CONSTABULARY FORCE. For that of London, see Police. The Constabulary of Ireland act passed in 1823, when this species of force was embodied throughout the country, Several subsequent acts were consolidated in 1836. CONSTANCE, a city in Baden (S. Germany). Here was held the seventeenth general council, 1414, which condemned John Huss; and here he was burnt, 6 July, 1415; see Hussites. CONSTANTINA, the ancient capital of Numidia, was taken by the French, 13 Oct. 1837. During the assault on 12 Oct. the French general Damremont was killed. Achmet Bey retired with 12,000 men, as the victors entered Constantina. CONSTANTINOPLE (formerly Byzantium) (which see), now Stamboul, derives its name from Constantine the Great, who removed the seat of the Eastern Empire here, dedicating it 11 May, 330. See Eastern Empire. St. Sophia dedicated Resisted the Saracens successfully And the Russians Taken by the Latins 365 532 537 675,718 865, 904, 941, 1043 1203, 1204 1261 Vainly besieged by Amurath the Ottoman, June Aug. 1422 Taken by Mahomet II. (after 53 days' siege, 29 May, 1453 General ecclesiastical councils against heresy were held here in 381, 553, 680, and 869. For continuation see under Turkey. ERA OF CONSTANTINOPLE has the creation placed 5508 years B. C. It was used by the Russians until the time of Peter the Great, and is still used in the Greek church. The civil year begins 1 Sept., and the ecclesiastical year in March; the day is not exactly determined. Το reduce it to our era, subtract 5508 years from January to August, and 5509 from Sept. to the end. Nicolas. CONSTELLATIONS. Arcturus, Orion, the Pleiades, and Mazzaroth are mentioned in Job ix. 9, and xxxviii. 31, about 1520 B.C. Homer and Hesiod notice constellations; but our first direct knowledge was derived from Claudius Ptolemæus, about A.D. 140. Hipparchus (about 147 B.C.) made a catalogue of forty-eight constellations, and others were added by Tycho Brahe, Hevelius, Halley, and others. The number at present acknowledged is 29 northern, 45 southern, and 12 zodiacal. CONSTITUENCIES, see Commons, House of. CONSTITUENT, see National Assembly. CONSTITUTION OF ENGLAND. It comprehends the whole body of laws by which the British people are governed, and to which it is presumptively held that every individual has assented. Lord Somers. This assemblage of laws is distinguished from the term government in this respectthat the constitution is the rule by which the sovereign ought to govern at all times; and government is that by which he does govern at any particular time. Lord Bolingbroke. The king of England is not seated on a solitary eminence of power: on the contrary, he sees his equals in the co-existing branches of the legislature, and he recognises his CONTAGIOUS DISEASES ACT for naval and military stations passed June 1866; amended, 1869-71; one for animals passed 1866; renewed 1867; amended 1869. Although the operation of the first act was reported to be successful, it has been much opposed. A royal commission appointed to inquire, reported, July, 1871; and alterations have been proposed. CONTINENTAL SYSTEM, the name given to Napoleon's plan to exclude the British merchandise from the entire continent. It began publicly with his Berlin decree in 1806, and occasioned the Orders in Council (which see), and was followed by similar measures. CONTINUITY. Mr. (now sir) W. R. Grove, in his address as president of the British Association, on held by many philosophers, that all the past changes 22 Aug. 1866, at Nottingham, expounded the opinion in the world have been produced by the continuous. action of the causes now in operation-that "continuity is a law of nature, the true expression of the action of Almighty Power." CONTRABAND OF WAR, a term said to. have been first employed in the treaty of Southamp-. ton between England and Spain in 1625. During the struggle between Spain and Holland, both. powers acted with much rigour towards ships of neutrals conveying goods to the belligerents. This provoked the resistance of England. A milder policy was adopted by the treaty of Pyrenees, 1650; and by the declaration of Paris, 26 April, 1856. The subject was much discussed during the North American conflict, 1861-4. filed from sitting in parliament, 1782. CONTRACTORS with Government, disquali CONTRIBUTIONS, VOLUNTARY, to a vast amount have been several times made by the British N people in aid of the government. One, in 1798, to support the war against France, amounted to two millions and a half sterling. Several men of wealth, among others sir Robert Peel, of Bury, Lancashire, subscribed each 10,000l.: and 200,000l. were transmitted from India in 1799; see Patriotic Fund. CONTROL, BOARD OF. Mr. Pitt's bill, establishing this board for the purpose of aiding and controlling the executive government of India, and of superintending the territorial concerns of the company, was passed 18 May, 1784. Act amended and the board remodelled, 1793. The president of the board was a chief minister of the crown, and necessarily one of the members of the cabinet. This board was abolished in 1858, when the government of India was transferred from the company to the crown; see India Bills, and India. CONVALESCENT INSTITUTION (Metropolitan), at Walton-on-Thames, with children's branches at Hendon and Mitcham, was established in 1840. A convalescent hospital for the east of London was founded at Snaresbrook in 1866, greatly due to the exertions of Mrs. Gladstone and Miss Catherine Marsh. The principle has been since strongly advocated and acted on. CONVENTICLES, private assemblies for religious worship, held by Dissenters from the established church; but first applied to the schools of Wickliff. They were strictly forbidden by Elizabeth in 1593, and by Charles II., 1664; and persons attending them were liable to severe punishment. The statutes were repealed by the toleration act, 24 May, 1689. The committee reported the evidence heard. June, 1871 CONVOCATION, a general assembly of the clergy of the nation, convened by the sovereign's writ, to consult on the affairs of the church; the writ is directed to the archbishop of each province, requiring him to summon all the bishops, archdeacons, &c. The convocation is divided into two houses, the upper, consisting of bishops; and lower, of deans, prebendaries, archdeacons, and members elected from the inferior clergy. The clergy were summoned to meet the king by writ, 23 Edw. I. 1294. The power of the convocation was limited by a statute of Henry VIII., in whose reign the convocation was reorganised. The two houses of convocation were deprived of various privileges in 1716, and ceased to meet. Formal meetings of the clergy have been held annually during the sitting of parliament since 1854, and fruitless attempts have been made to obtain the power of dealing summarily with ecclesiastical affairs; but in Feb. 1872, convocation was authorised to deliberate respecting alterations in the Liturgy; upon which it acted, 5 March. CONVOLVULUS. The Canary Convolvulus (Convolvulus canariensis) came to England from the Canary Isles, 1690. The many-flowered, 1779. COOKERY, an art connected with civilised life. Animals were granted as food to Noah, 2348 B.C., the eating blood being expressly forbidden Gen. ix. 3, 4). In 1898 B.C. a calf was cooked by Abraham to entertain his guests (Gen. xviii. 7, 8). "The Forme of Cury" (i.e. cookery) is dated 1390. An English cookery-book was printed 1498; see Cottager's Stove. Military Cookery-Capt. Grant devised a system of cooking for the camp at Aldershot, which has continued in successful operation for the service of between 12.000 and 14,000 men. From April to August, in 1857, the plan was subjected to the severe test of cooking for 92,000 men, who marched in and out of the encampment during that period. The consumption of fuel requisite for this system of cooking was one half-pound of coal per man per day, and the official report states the cost to be one halfpenny per man per week for the three daily meals. Self-supporting Cooking Depôts for the working classes were set up at Glasgow (by Mr. Thomas Corbett), 21 Sept. 1860; and proved successful in Manchester, London, and other places soon after. CONVENTS were first founded, according to some authorities, 270. The first in England was erected at Folkstone, by Eadbald, in 630. Camden. The first in Scotland was at Coldingham, where Ethelreda'took the veil in 670. They were founded earlier in Ireland. They were suppressed in Eng-Three medals were awarded to the Norwegian self-acting land in various reigns, particularly in that of Henry VIII. A very great number have been suppressed in Europe in the present century.. The king of Prussia secularised all the convents in the duchy of Posen. Don Pedro put down 300 convents in Portugal in 1834; and Spain abolished 1800 convents. Many were abolished in Italy and Sicily in 1860, 1861, and 1866, and many in Russia 31 July, 1832, and Nov. 1864. In 1597 lady Mary Percy founded a convent at Brussels, which flourished there till 1794, when the nuns were compelled to remove to England. They were received by bishop Milner, and placed at Winchester, at which place they remained till their removal to East Bergholt, in Suffolk, June, 1857. This was the first English conventual establishment founded on the continent after the Reformation. By the Emancipation act of 1829, 10 Geo. IV., the establishment of convents and other religious communities in the United Kingdom was prohibited, but this enactment has been a dead letter. 1829 A select committee to investigate into the revenues of British convents appointed by the commons, 10 May, 1870; reappointed Feb. 1871 cooking apparatus (Sorenson's patent) at the Paris Exhibition, 1867. Cooking is effected by boiling water, the heat of which is maintained by enclosing it in a non-conducting substance. A School of Cookery was opened at the international exhibition, South Kensington, 14 April, 1873. COOK'S VOYAGES. James Cook, accompanied by Mr (afterwards sir) Joseph Banks, sailed from England in the Endeavour on his first voyage, 30 July, 1768; and returned home after having circumnavigated the globe, arriving at Deal 12 June, 1771. The chief object of the expedition, at the request of the Royal Society, was the observation of the transit of Venus over the sun's disk, which was effected, 3 June, 1769. Captain Cook sailed to explore the southern hemisphere, 13 July, 1772, and returned 30 July, 1775. In his last expedition (begun 12 July, 1776) he was killed by the savages and Discovery, arrived at Sheerness, 4 Oct. 1780. of Owhyhee, 14 Feb. 1779. His ships, the Resolution COOLIES, the hill tribes of India, have been recently much employed as labourers in Australia and California, especially since 1861; and about 30,000 of them were conveyed by M. Kootmanschap, to assist in making the great Pacific railway. His proposal in 1869 to replace the negroes in the Southern States of North America for the cultivation of cotton, was not accepted. "The Coolie, his Rights and Wrongs," by E. Jenkins, was published 1871. Coolie emigration has been the subject of negotiation between the British and Chinese governments since 1855. COOPERAGE, an ancient art, probably suggested for preserving wine. The coopers of London were incorporated in 1501. CO-OPERATIVE SOCIETIES are composed of working men, having for their object the sale of articles of daily consumption to the members at low prices. The Rochdale Equitable Pioneers Society began in 1844, with a capital of 28. In 1860, the business done amounted to 152,0637., the profits being 15,9067. These societies (332 in 1862) are registered pursuant to 13 and 14 Vict. c. 115 (1849). On 31 Dec. 1866, 749 industrial, provident, and co-operative societies were registered. By an act passed in 1867 they are bound to make a return. The fourth congress was held at Bolton, 1 April, 1872, the fifth at Newcastle, 12 April, 1873, Mr. T. Hughes, M.P., in the chair. A national trade society in opposition to it was formed in 1872. COORG, a province, S. India. War broke out between the rajah and the East India Company 1832, which ended by col. Lindsay defeating and deposing the rajah, 10 April, 1834, and his territories were soon after annexed by the British. In 1853 the rajah brought his daughter to be educated in England, where she was baptized. She married a col. Campbell, and died a few years after. COPENHAGEN (Denmark), built by Waldemar I., 1157, made the capital, 1443; the university founded 1479. In 1728, more than seventy of its streets and 3785 houses were burnt. Its palace, valued at four millions sterling, was wholly burnt, Feb. 1794, when 100 persons lost their lives. In a fire which lasted forty-eight hours, the arsenal, admiralty, and fifty streets were destroyed, June, 1795. A new national theatre was founded by the king, 18 Oct. 1872.-Copenhagen was bombarded by the English under lord Nelson and admiral Parker; and in their engagement with the Danish fleet of twenty-three ships of the line, eighteen were taken or destroyed by the British, 2 April, 1801. Again, after a bombardment of three days, the city and Danish fleet surrendered to admiral Gambier and lord Cathcart, 7 Sept. 1807. The capture consisted of eighteen sail of the line, fifteen frigates, six brigs, and twenty-five gun-boats, and immense naval stores. See Denmark. COPENHAGEN FIELDS (N. London). Here the Corresponding Society met on 26 Oct. 1796; and the Trades' Union, 21 April, 1834. The fields are now chiefly occupied by the Metropolitan Cattle-market, opened 13 June, 1855. COPERNICAN SYSTEM, so called from its author Nicolas Copernicus, born at Thorn, 19 Feb. 1473, died 24 May, 1543. A few days before his death, the printing of his book on the "Revolution of the Celestial Bodies" was completed. The system, which resembles that attributed to Pythagoras, was condemned by a decree of pope Paul V. in 1616; not revoked till 1818 by Pius VII. COPLEY MEDAL, see Royal Society. COPPER. One of the six primitive metals, said to have been first discovered in Cyprus. Pliny. We read in the Scriptures of two vessels of fine copper (or brass), "precious as gold," 457 B.c. (Ezra viii. 27). The mines of Fahlun, in Sweden, are most surprising excavations. In England, copper-mines were discovered in 1561, and there are upwards of fifty mines in Cornwall, where mining has been increasing since the reign of William III. In 1857, 75,832 tons of copper ore were imported, and 25,241 tons extracted. In 1865, 198,298 tons of copper ore were extracted from British mines, and 11,888 tons smelted: 82,562 tons were imported. In 1856, 24,257 tons of pure copper (worth 2,983,6117.), in 1870, 8291 tons (worth 644,0651.) were produced in the United Kingdom. The Burra-Burra coppermines, in S. Australia, discovered 1842, brought great prosperity. COPPER MONEY. The Romans, prior to the reign of Servius Tullius, used rude pieces of copper for money; see Coin. In England copper money was made at the instance of sir Robert Cotton, in 1609; but was first really coined (when Miss Stewart sat for the figure of Britannia) 1665. Its regular coinage began in 1672, and it was largely issued in. . 1689 1580 1792 In Ireland, copper was coined as early as 1339; in See Bronze. Messrs. Perkins, of Philadelphia, invented a mode COPPER SHEATHING first applied to the bottom of 1545 1819 1780 about 1850 COPPERAS, a mineral composed of copper or iron combined with sulphuric acid (vitriol), found in copper-mines, commonly of a green or blue colour; said to have been first produced in England by Cornelius de Vos, a merchant, in 1587. COPPERHEADS, a name given about 1863 to such members of the Democrat party in the South on any terms. - Copperhead is a poisonUnited States as were in favour of peace with the viper, &c. ous serpent, also named dumb-rattle snake, red COPTS, in Egypt, the supposed descendants of the ancient Egyptians, mingled with Greeks and Persians. Their religion is a form of Christianity derived from the Eutychians. COPYHOLDERS, who hold an estate by a copy of the rolls of a manor made by a steward of the lord's court. They were enfranchised by 5 Viet c. 35, 1841. By the Reform act in 1832, copyholders to the amount of 10l. became entitled to a vote for the county. The copyhold acts were amended by 21 & 22 Vict. c. 94 (1858). COPYING-MACHINES (for letters, &c.) were invented by James Watt in 1778; patented in May, 1780; and 150 machines were sold before the end of the year. Wedgwood's "manifold writer' was patented in 1806; and in 1855 Terry patented a copying machine to be combined with the cover of a book. COPYRIGHT. Decree of the Star-chamber regarding it, 1556. Every book and publication ordered to be licensed, 1585. Ordinance forbidding the printing of any work with- 1649 1709 22 Feb. 1774 Dramatic authors' protection act, 3 Will. IV. c. 15. 1833 I 5 and 6 Vict. c. 45 (Talfourd's or lord Mahon's act), to amend the copyright act passed (By this act, the right is to endure for the life of the author, and for seven years after his death; but if that time expire earlier than 42 years, the right is still to endure for 42 years, for which term also any work published after the author's death is to continue the property of the owners of the manuscript) The colonies' copyright act, 10 & 11 Vict. c. 95, passed COPYRIGHT FOR DESIGNS. Protection granting security for two months to new designs applied by printing to linens, calicoes, and muslins Extended to three months 1835 1838 1842 1847 1787 A copyright of 14 years conferred on sculpture, 1798 1794 and 1814 The designs act of Geo. III. made to embrace printed designs on wool, silk, and hair; and 12 months' copyright granted to designs applied to all tissues except lace and those already provided for; for the modelling, embossing, and engraving of any manufacture not being a tissue; and for the shape or configuration of any article By 5 & 6 Vict. c. 100, all existing designs acts repealed (except that for sculpture), and provision made for including all ornamental designs under classes, and conferring upon them terms . of protection, varying from nine months to three 1839 1842 1843 By the " designs act," the Board of Trade is em powered to extend the copyright for an additional term of three years 1850 Copyright of photographs secured by the act protecting works of art, passed in July, 1862 INTERNATIONAL COPYRIGHT. Acts passed to secure to authors, in certain cases, the benefits of international copyright (1 & 2 Vict. c. 59, and 15 Viet. c. 12), and conventions have, in consequence, been entered into with France, Prussia, &c. 1838 and 1852 The question of a foreigner possessing a copyright in this country was finally decided in the negative by the house of lords, who reversed the decision of the court of exchequer, on an appeal by the defendant in the case of Boosey v. Jeffrey. (In 1831, Mr. Boosey purchased the copyright of Bellini's opera, La Sonnambula, from which Mr. Jeffrey published a cavatina. Six of the judges were for protecting foreign copyrights, and seven of a contrary opinion.). International copyright bill introduced into American house of representatives 21 Feb. 1868 In the case of Routledge v. Low, the house of lords Aug. 1854 on appeal decided in favour of the copyright of a foreign author 29 May, 1868 Copyright Association of England, founded by eminent London booksellers. 19 March, 1872 CORBIESDALE, Caithness (N. Scotland). Here, on 27 April, 1650, the gallant marquis of Montrose was defeated by the Covenanters. He was taken soon after, treated with great contumely, and hanged at Edinburgh, on 21 May. CORCYRA (now Corfu, chief of the Ionian Isles), a colony founded by the Corinthians about 734 B.C. It had frequent wars with the mother country; one about the possession of Epidamnus (431 B.C.) led to the Peloponnesian war. It was subdued by the Spartans in 373, and by the Romans, 230. At the decline of the eastern empire it fell into the hands of the Venetians about A.D. 1149. The Turks attacked Corfu in 1716, but were gallantly repulsed. It was taken from the French by the allied Russian and Turkish fleets 3 March, 1799, and formed (with the other isles) into the Ionian republic; see Ionian Isles. CORDELIERS, friars of the order of St. Francis d'Assisi (the Minorites) instituted about 1223. They are clothed in coarse grey cloth, having a girdle of cord, hence the name, first given to them by St. Louis of France, about 1227. Several members of the French revolutionary party, termed "Cordeliers," established at Paris Dec. 1790 (Hebert Cloots, &c.), were executed 24 March, 1794. CORDOVA, the Roman Corduba (S. Spain), founded about 152 B.C., taken by the Goths A.D. 572, and made the capital of an Arab kingdom by Abderahman in 756, who founded the great mosque Seneca and Lucan, and of the Arabian physician (now the cathedral) 786. It was the birthplace of Averrhoës. It was rescued from the Arabs by Ferdinand III. of Castile in 1236, was taken by the French under Dupont and disgracefully ravaged 7-9 June, 1808; surrendered to Joseph Bonaparte Jan. 1810; abandoned by the French in 1813; plundered by the Carlists, Oct. 1836. COREA, a peninsula, E. Asia, tributary to China, and from which foreigners are rigidly excluded. For the dispute with Americans see United States, June, 1871. Taken by Turks, 1446; by Venetians, 1687; by 396 1146 1823 21 Feb. 1858 A concession granted for 99 years to a French company to cut the isthmus for a canal; to be completed in six years, by MM. E. G. Piat and Chollet April, 1870 CORINTHIAN ORDER, the richest of the orders of ancient architecture, called by Scamozzi the virginal order, is attributed to Callimachus, 540 B.C.; see Abacus. CORINTHIAN WAR, began 395 B.C.; received this name because mostly in the neighbourhood of Corinth; waged by a confederacy of the Athenians, Thebans, Corinthians, and Argives, against the Lacedæmonians. It was closed by the peace of Antaleidas, 387 B.C. The most famous battles were at Coronea and Leuctra (which see).. CORIOLI, a Latin city, capital of the Volscians, taken by the Romans, 493 B.C. The exploits of Caius Marcius or Coriolanus against it are deemed mythical. CORK (S. Ireland), built in the 6th century. The principality of the M'Cartys was converted into a shire by king John, as lord of Ireland. The foundation of the SEE is ascribed to St. Barr, or Finbarr, early in the 7th century. About 1431, this see and Cloyne were united; but in 1678 they were separated, Ross having been added to Cork 1582. Cork and Cloyne were reunited (by the act of 1833) 1835. Garrisoned by Henry II. Supported Perkin Warbeck, who landed here CORN. The origin of its cultivation is attributed to Ceres, who, having taught the art to the Egyptians, was deified by them, 2409 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. The art of husbandry, and the method of making bread from wheat, and wine from rice, is attributed by the Chinese to Ching Noung, the successor of Fohi, and second monarch of China, 1998 B.C. Univ. Hist. Corn provided a common article of food from the earliest ages of the world, and baking bread was known in the patriarchal ages; see Exodus xii. 15. The first importation of corn, of which we have a note, was in 1347. A law restricting it was made in 1361, and similar legislation followed. Bounties were granted on its importation into England in 1689. CORN LAWS. The restrictions on the importation of corn felt, in consequence of the increase of manufactures, about 1770; relaxed 1773 1815 Mr. Robinson's act passed, permitting importation when wheat is 80s. a quarter During the discussions on this bill, mobs assembled in London, and many of the houses of its supporters were damaged, 28 Jan.; and a riot in Westminster continued. 6-9 March, A corn bill, after passing in the commons, defeated in the lords, by a clause proposed by the duke of Wellington, carried by a majority of 4 I June, 1827 The act (called the sliding scale) whereby wheat was allowed to be imported on payment of a duty of 1l. 58. 8d. per quarter, whenever the average price of all England was under 628.; from 628. to 638., 1l. 48. 8d.; and so gradually reduced to 18., when the average price was 738. and upwards, passed 15 July, 1828 The act 5 Vict. c. 14, the second "sliding scale act,' regulated the duty on wheat as follows, with sliding duties, also, on other articles of corn, passed . Average per quarter. Shillings. Shillings. under 51 51 and under 52. 52 and under 55 55 and under 56. 56 and under 57 57 and under 58. 58 and under 59 59 and under 60 60 and under 61 61 and under 62. 62 and under 63 1172 1185 63 and under 64. 64 and under 65 65 and under 66 66 and under 69 69 and under 70. 70 and under 71 1725 & 1735 71 and under 72. Explosion of gunpowder here 10 Nov. 1810 29 April, 1842 Duty. £ s. d. • I . O 19 . O 18 17 O 16 098 76 i + One of the three colleges, endowed by government 7 Nov. 1849 1850 11 Sept. 1852 For a seditious speech in favour of the Fenians (which see), on 27 April, 1869, the mayor was compelled to resign (an act for his disability having been introduced into parliament) 11 May, 1870 Riots, partially connected with a strike, suppressed 26, 28 June, New protestant cathedral consecrated 30 Nov. Cork industrial exhibition opened, io June, and closed 72 and under 73 73 and upwards. The CORN IMPORTATION Bill (introduced by sir Robert Peel), 9 & 10 Vict. c. 22 (by which the duty on wheat was reduced to 48. when imported at or above 538., until 1st Feb. 1849; after which day the duty became 18. per quarter only, on all kinds of grain imported into the United kingdom, at any prices), received the royal assent 26 June, 1846 The 18. duty repealed by act passed 24 June, 1869 See Anti-Corn Law League. CORN EXCHANGE, Mark-lane, London, erected at an expense of 90,000l. (replacing one established in 1747), was opened. 24 June, 1828 The Society of Arts gave a prize to Mr. W. A. Gibbs for his essay on harvesting corn in wet weather |