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peopled by Ham. For its history, see Egypt, Cape, Carthage, Cyrene, Abyssinia, Algiers, Morocco, &c.

Carthage subdued by the Romans 146 B.C.; other provinces gained by Pompey, 82.

Revolts subdued by Diocletian, 296; by Theodosius,

373

N. Africa conquered by the Vandals under Genseric, A.D. 429-35; re-conquered by Belisarius, 533-55

The Saracens subdue the north of Africa, 637-709.
Cape of Good Hope discovered by Diaz, 1487.

Vasco de Gama doubles the Cape and explores the coast, 19 Nov. 1497.

Portuguese settlements begun, 1450.

English merchants visit Guinea in 1550; and Elizabeth
granted a patent to an African company in 1588.
Dutch colony at the Cape founded, 1650.
Capt. Stubbs sailed up the Gambia, 1723.
Bruce commenced his travels in 1768.
Sierra Leone settled by the English, 1787.

Mungo Park made his first voyage to Africa, 22 May, 1795; his second, 30 January, 1804, and never returned (see Park).

Africa visited by Salt, 1805 and 1809: Burckhardt, 1812; Campbell, 1813; Hornemann, 1816; Denham and Clapperton, 1822; Laing, 1826; the brothers Lander, 1830.

The great Niger expedition to start a colony in Central Africa (for which parliament voted 60,000l.), consisting of the Albert, Wilberforce, and Soudan steamships, commenced the ascent of the Niger, 20 Aug. 1841; when they reached Iddah, fever broke out among the crews, and they were successively obliged to return, the Albert having ascended the river to Egga, 320 miles from the sea, 28 Sept. The expedition was relinquished owing to disease, heat, and hardships, and all the vessels had cast anchor at Clarence Cove, Fernando Po, 17 Oct. 1841.

James Richardson explored the great Sahara in 1845-6, and in 1849 (by direction of the Foreign Office) he left England to explore central Africa, accompanied by Drs. Barth and Overweg. Richardson died 4 March, 1851; and Overweg died, 27 Sept. 1852.

Dr. Vögel sent out with reinforcements to Dr. Barth, 20 Feb. 1853; in April, 1857, said to have been assassinated.

Dr. Barth returned to England, and received the Royal Geographical Society's medal, 16 May, 1856. His travels were published in 5 vols. in 1858. Dr. David Livingstone, a missionary traveller, returned to England in Dec. 1856, after an absence of 16 years, during which he traversed a large part of the heart of S. Africa, and walked about 11,000 miles, principally over country hitherto unexplored. His book was published in Nov. 1857. In Feb. 1858, he was appointed British consul for the Portuguese possessions in Africa, and left England shortly after.

Du Chaillu's travels in central Africa, 1856-59, created much controversy, 1861.

Second expedition of Dr. Livingstone, March, 1858. Captains Speke and Grant announce the discovery of a source of the Nile in Lake Nyanza Victoria, 23 Feb. 1863. [Capt. Speke was accidentally shot by his own gun while alone near Bath, 15 Sept. 1864.]

Some Dutch ladies unsuccessfully explore the White Nile, and undergo many privations, July, 1863-1864. (One Miss Tinne said to have been killed; reported 5 Sept. 1869.)

The Universities Mission to east central Africa," consisting of Charles F. Mackenzie, bishop of central Africa, and six clergymen and others, started Dec. 1860, and arrived at the Zambesi, in Feb. 1861. All died from privations and disease except two, who returned in 1864. The bishop died 31 Jan. 1862; succeeded by Dr. Tozer.

Du Chaillu starts on a fresh expedition, 6 Aug. 1863; after being robbed, and undergoing many privations, returned to London near the end of 1865. He gave an account of his journey at a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Jan. 1866.

Dr. Livingstone returns, 23 July, 1864.

Death of Dr. W. B. Baikie, at Sierra Leone, 30 Nov. 1864. [He was sent as special envoy to the Negro tribes near the Niger by the Foreign Office about 1854. He opened commercial relations with central Africa.]

Mr. (afterwards sir) Samuel Baker discovered a lake, supposed to be another source of the Nile, which he named Lake Nyanza Albert, 14 March, 1864.

Dr. Livingstone appointed British consul for inner Africa, 24 March, 1865.

Narrative of Livingstone's Zambesi expedition 1858-64, published 1866.

Livingstone left Zanzibar to continue his search for the sources of the Nile, March, 1866.

[See his narrative below.]

Reports of the murder of Livingstone near Lake Nyassa, in Sept. 1866-March, 1867; doubted, July, 1867. Expedition of E. D. Young in search of Livingstone, sailed 9 July, 1867, returned and reported to the Royal Geographical Society his conviction that Livingstone was alive, 27 Jan. 1868.

Letter from Dr. Livingstone dated Bembo, 2 Mar. 1867; heard of down to Dec. 1867.

His dispatch to lord Clarendon, dated 7 July, 1868; read
to the Royal Geographical Society, 8 Nov. 1869.
Letter dated 30 May, 1869, published Dec. 1869.
Uncredited reports of his murder by negroes, Jan; his

probable safety reported by Dr. Kirk, 22 June; said to be at Mozambique, Nov. 1870.

Expedition of sir Samuel Baker to put down slave trade on the Upper Nile (see Egypt), Jan. 1870. (Unsuccessful, Feb. 1873.)

Expedition in search of Livingstone under lieut. Dawson, organised by the Royal Geographical Society; started 9 Feb. 1872.

[It returned on hearing that Stanley had found Livingstone.]

Dutch Guinea settlements purchased and transferred (see Elmina), 6 April, 1872.

Reports current that Livingstone is alive, May, June, 1872.

Expedition sent in search of Livingstone by Mr. James Gordon Bennett, proprietor of the New York Herald, at a cost of about 8,000l. :

Mr. Henry M. Stanley, chief of the expedition, left Zanzibar, and, after much opposition from the native chiefs, accidentally fell in with Livingstone at Ujiji, near Unyanyembe, to Nov. 1871, and remained with him till 14 March, 1872, when he brought away his diary and other documents. Mr. Stanley reported that Livingstone had arrived at Ujiji in bad condition, having been robbed and deserted by his attendants. Much controversy ensued between Mr. Stanley, the members of lieut. Dawson's expedition, Dr. Livingstone, Dr. Kirk, the Royal Geographical Society, and others, Aug.---Oct. 1872.

Letter from Dr. Livingstone, at Ujiji, dated Nov. 1871, to Mr. Bennett (printed in New York Herald, 26 July, and reprinted in the Times 27 July, 1872). He describes his explorations and his painful journey to Ujiji; his meeting with Mr. Stanley; and he speaks of the Nile springs being about 600 miles south of the most southerly part of Lake Victoria Nyanza; and also of about 700 miles of watershed in central Africa, of which he had explored about 600; and of the convergence of the watershed first into four, and then into two, mighty rivers in the great Nile valley (?) between 10° and 12 south latitude. Second letter (dated Feb. 1872) describes the horrors of the slave trade in eastern Africa, printed in the Times 29 July, 1872. Livingstone's dispatches, dated Nov. 1 and 15, 1871, received by the Foreign Office, 1 Aug.; letter dated 1 July, received 2 Oct. 1872.

Mr. Stanley described his discovery of Livingstone to the British Association at Brighton in presence of the emperor and empress of the French, 16 Aug., and received a gold snuff-box from the queen about 30 Aug. 1872.

New Expedition, under sir Bartle Frere, to Zanzibar, to suppress the east African slave trade; lieut. V. Lovett Cameron's offer to aid in the furtherance of Livingstone's expedition was accepted; sailed 20 Nov. 1872. Expedition to explore the upper part of the Congo (Mr. Young, of Kelly, will subscribe 200ol. Royal Geographical Society to supplement it), proposed Nov. 1872.

AFRICAN ASSOCIATION, for promoting the exploration of central Africa, was formed in June, 1788, principally by sir Joseph Banks; and under its auspices many additions were made to African geography by Ledyard, Park, Burckhardt, Hornemann, &c. It merged into the Royal Geographical Society, July, 1831.

AFRICAN CHURCH. In 1866 Robert Gray, bishop of Cape town (in consequence of a decision of the privy council; see Church of England), established synods of the "Church of South Africa." AFRICAN COMPANY (merchants trading to Africa), arose out of an association in London, formed in 1588. A charter was granted to a joint-stock company in 1618; a second company was created in 1631; a 3rd corporation in 1662; another was formed by letters-patent in 1672; remodelled in 1695. In 1821 the company was abolished. AFRICAN INSTITUTION, founded in London in 1807, for the abolition of the slave trade, and the civilization of Africa. Many schools have been established with success, particularly at Sierra Leone.

AGAPE (agape, Greek for love, charity), "feasts of charity," referred to Jude 12, and described by Tertullian, of which the first Christians of all ranks partook, in memory of the last time when Christ ate with his disciples. Disorders creeping in, these feasts were forbidden to be celebrated in churches by the councils of Laodicea (366) and Carthage (390). They are still recognised by the Greek church, and are held in their original form weekly by the Glasites or Sandemanians, and in some degree by the Moravians and Wesleyans.

AGAPEMONÉ (Greek," the abode of love", an establishment at Charlinch, near Bridgwater) Somersetshire, founded in 1845, where Henry James Prince, and his deluded followers, formerly persons of property, live in common, professing to devote themselves to innocent recreation and to maintain spiritual marriage. The Agapemoné is described by Mr. Hepworth Dixon in his " Spiritual Wives," published in Jan. 1868. Meetings of the sect were held at Hamp, near Bridgwater, Dec., 1872.

AGE. Chronologers have divided the time between the creation and the birth of Christ into ages. Hesiod (about 850 B.C.) described the Golden, Silver, Brazen, and Iron Ages; see Dark Ages.

FIRST AGE (from the Creation to the De-
luge)

SECOND AGE (to the coming of Abraham into
Canaan).

THIRD AGE (to the Exodus from Egypt)' FOURTH AGE (to the founding of Solomon's Temple)

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1490-1014 1014- 588 588

FIFTH AGE (to the capture of Jerusalem)
SIXTH AGE (to the birth of Christ).
SEVENTH AGE (to the present time) B. C. 4-A. D. 1873

4

AGE. In Greece and Rome twenty-five was full age for both sexes, but a greater age was requisite for the holding certain offices: eg. thirty for tribunes; forty-three for consuls. In England

Prince was born in 1811; educated for the medical profession and licensed to practise, 1832; gave it up for the church and entered St. David's college, Lampeter, and there commenced ultra-revivalist movements in 1836; and finally claimed to be an incarnation of the Deity, with corresponding authority over his followers. On 22 May, 1850, Thomas Robinson sought to recover the possession of his child from the care of its mother (from whom he had separated); the application was refused by the vice-chancellor, to "save the child from the pollution of the parent's teaching."-On 21 Aug. 1858, Miss Louisa Jane Nottidge died, having transferred her property to Mr. H. J. Prince. Her brother, Mr. Nottidge, by an action, recovered from Prince 57281., as having been fraudulently obtained. Extraordinary disclosures were made during the trial, 25 July, 1860. In the autumn of 1860, the Rev. Mr. Price, after several vain attempts, succeeded in rescuing his wife from the Agapemone. They had both been early supporters of it.

the minority of a male terminates at twenty-one, and of a female in some cases, as that of a queen, at eighteen. In 1547, the majority of Edward VI. was, by the will of his father, fixed at eighteen years; previously to completing which age, his father, Henry VIII., had assumed the reins of government, in 1509.-A male of twelve may take the oath of allegiance; at fourteen he may consent to a marriage, or choose a guardian; at seventeen he may be an executor, and at twenty-one he is of age; but according to the statute of wills, 7 Will. IV. and I Vict. c. 26, 1837, no will made by any person under the age of twenty-one years shall be valid. A female at twelve may consent to a marriage, at fourteen she may choose a guardian, and at twenty-one she is of age.

AGINCOURT, OR AZINCOUR (N. France), a village, where Henry V. of England, with about 9000 men, defeated about 60,000 French on St. Crispin's day, 25 Oct. 1415. Of the French, there were, according to some accounts, 10,000 killed, including the dukes of Alençon, Brabant, and Bar, the archbishop of Sens, one marshal, thirteen earls, ninety-two barons, and 1500 knights, and 14,000 prisoners, among whom were the dukes of Orleans and Bourbon, and 7000 barons, knights, and gentleof Suffolk, and about 20 others. St. Rémy asserts The English lost the duke of York, the earl with more probability that the English lost 1600 men. Henry V. soon after obtained the kingdom of France.

men.

AGINCOUR, iron-clad. See Navy, 1851.

AGITATORS (or Adjutators), officers appointed by the Parliamentary army in 1647, to take care of its interests: each troop or company had two. The protector Cromwell was eventually obliged to repress their seditious power. At a review he seized the ringleaders of a mutiny, shot one instantly, in the presence of his companions and the forces on the ground, and thus restored discipline. Hume.Daniel O'Connell, the agitator of Ireland, was born in 1775. He began to agitate at the elections in 1826; was elected for Clare, 5 July, 1828; the election being declared void, he was re-elected 30 July, 1829. After the passing of the Catholic emancipation bill, he agitated in vain for the repeal of the union, 1834 to 1843. He died 15 May, 1847. -Richard Cobden and John Bright were the chief Anti-corn-law agitators, 1841-45.-Mr. Bright became a Reform agitator in 1866.

AGNADELLO (N. E. Italy). Here Louis XII. of France gained a great victory over the Venetians, some of whose troops were accused of cowardice and The conflict is also treachery; 14 May, 1509. termed the battle of the Rivolta.

AGNOITE (from agnoia, Greek, ignorance). I. A sect founded by Theophronius of Cappadocia about 370: said to have doubted the omniscience of God. II. The followers of Themistius of Alexandria, about 530, who held peculiar views as to the body of Christ, and doubted his divinity.

AGONISTICA (from agōn, Greek,a conflict), also termed circutores, a branch of the Donatists (which see) in the 4th century. They preached with great boldness, and incurred severe persecution.

AGRA (N. W. India), founded by Akbar in 1566, was the capital of the Great Mogul; see Mausoleums. In 1658 Aurungzebe removed to Delhi. The fortress of Agra, "the key of Hindo

stan," in the war with the Mahrattas surrendered to the British forces, under general Lake, 17 Oct. 1803, after one day's siege: 162 pieces of ordnance and 240,000l. were captured.-In June, 1857, the city was abandoned to the mutineers by the Europeans, who took refuge in the fort, from which they were rescued by major Montgomery and colonel Greathed.-Allahabad was made capital of the N. W. provinces of India, instead of Agra, in 1861.

AGRARIAN LAW (Agraria lex), decreed an equal division among the Roman people of all the lands acquired by conquest, limiting the acres which each person should enjoy. It was first proposed by the consul Spurius Cassius, 486 B.C., and occasioned his judicial murder when he went out of office in 485.-An agrarian law was passed by the tribune Licinius Stolo, 376; and for proposing further amendments Tiberius Gracchus in 133, and his brother Cornelius in 121, were murdered. Livius Drusus, a tribune, was murdered for the same cause, 91. Julius Caesar propitiated the plebeians by passing an agrarian law in 59.-In modern times the term has been misinterpreted to signify a division of the lands of the rich among the poor, frequently proposed by demagogues, such as Gracchus Babeuf, editor of the Tribun du Peuple, in 1794. In 1796 he conspired against the directory with the view of obtaining a division of property, was condemned, and killed himself, 27 May, 1797.

AGRICOLA'S WALL, see Roman Walls.

AGRICULTURE. "Abel was a keeper of sheep, but Cain was a tiller of the ground," Genesis iv. 2. The Athenians asserted that the art of sowing corn began with them; and the Cretans, Sicilians, and Egyptians made the same claim.

Cato the Censor (died 149 B.C.) and Varro (died 28 B.C.) were eminent Roman writers on agriculture. Virgil's Georgics, 30 B.C. Agriculture in England improved by the Romans after A.D. 44. Fitzherbert's "Book of Husbandry," printed 1524. Tusser's "Five Hundred Points of Husbandry," 1562. Blythe's "Improver," 1649.

Hartlib's "Legacy," 1650.

Jethro Tull's " Horse-hoeing Husbandry," 1701. About the end of the 18th century, fallowing was gradually superseded by turnips and green crops. In Aug. 1855, a committee presented a report on the best mode of obtaining accurate Agricultural Statistics, which has not been fully acted on. There were, in 1831, 1,055,982 agricultural labourers in Great Britain, and in Ireland, 1,131,715.

AGRICULTURAL SOCIETIES.-The earliest mentioned in the British Isles was the Society of Improvers of Agriculture in Scotland, instituted in 1723. A Dublin Agricultural Society (1749) gave a stimulus to agriculture in Ireland; its origin is attributed to Mr. Prior of Rathdowney, Queen's County, in 1731. The Bath and West of England Society established, 1777; and the Highland Society of Scotland, 1793. County Agricul

tural Societies are now numerous.

London Board of Agriculture established by act of parliament, 1793.

Francis, duke of Bedford, a great promoter of agriculture, died 2 March, 1802. Royal Agricultural Society of England established in 1838, by noblemen and gentlemen, the chief landed proprietors in the kingdom, and incorporated by royal charter, 26 March, 1840. It holds two meetings annually, one in London the other in the country; the first country meeting at Oxford in 1839. It awards prizes, and publishes a valuable journal. The London meeting at Battersea in June, 1862, was highly successful.

"Chambers of Agriculture" were established in France in 1851. In Great Britain, 1868, they had increased from 36 to 70. A journal commenced early in 1868. Royal Agricultural College at Cirencester organised, 1842;| chartered, 1845.

1866.

"History of Agriculture and Prices in England (12591400)," by Professor James T. Rogers, published, June, AGRICULTURAL CHEMISTRY.-Sir Humphry Davy delivered lectures on this subject (afterwards published), at the instance of the Board of Agriculture, in 1812; but it excited little attention till the publication of Liebig's work in 1840, which made a powerful impression. Boussingault's "Economie Rurale," an equally important work, appeared in 1844. The immoderate expectations from this study having been somewhat disappointed, a partial reaction took place. Liebig's "Letters on Agriculture," appeared in 1859. AGRICULTURAL GANGS.-In the spring of 1867, most painful exposures were made of the prevalence of much cruelty and immorality in the gang system (in which boys and girls are employed) in several of the eastern and midland counties; and in consequence an act was passed 20 Aug. for regulating these gangs, licensing gang-masters, &c.

A Union of Agricultural Labourers, managed chiefly by Joseph Arch, formerly a labourer, afterwards a Methodist preacher, was inaugurated at Leamington, Warwickshire, 29 March, 1872. The movement spread, being countenanced by Auberon Herbert, M.P., and others.

The following table, drawn up by Mr. William Couling, C.E., in 1827, is extracted from the Third Report of the Emigration Committee:—

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It was reckoned by the Agricultural Committee, that the cultivation of waste lands would yield above 20,000,000l. a year. It was calculated in 1854 that there was in England 32,160,000 acres in cultivation, of the annual value of 37.412,000l. Since that time, much land has been brought into cultivation; see Wheat.

AGRICULTURAL HALL, Islington, N. London, chiefly for the meetings of the Smithfield Club. The foundation stone was laid by the presiThe hall has dent, lord Berners, 5 Nov. 1861. been much used for industrial exhibitions, public meetings, equestrian performances, &c.

It was opened for an exhibition of dogs, 24 June, 1862; horses and donkeys exhibited, July, 1864, and annually since.

First annual cattle show here, 6 Dec. 1862.

A great reform demonstration was made here, 30 July, 1866.

Grand ball to the Belgian visitors, volunteers and garde civique; prince of Wales present, 18 July, 1867.

Excellent horse-shows held here May, 1868, 1869, 1870, 1871.

Theatrical bull-fights here stopped, on account of cruelty,
28 Mar. 1870.
Workmen's International exhibition opened by the
Prince of Wales, 16 July, 1870.

AGRIGENTUM (now Girgenti), a city of Sicily, built about 582 B. C. It was governed by tyrants from 566 to 470; among these werePhalaris (see Brazen Bull); Alcamanes; Theron who, with his step-father Gelon, defeated the Carthaginians at Himera, 480: and Thrasydæus, his son, expelled in 470; when a republic was established. It was taken by the Carthaginians in 405 B. C., and held, except during short intervals, till gained by the Romans in 262 B. C. From A. D. 825 till 1086 it was held by the Saracens.

AHMEDNUGGUR (W. India), once capital of a state founded by Ahmed Shah, about 1493. After having fallen into the hands of the Moguls and the Mahrattas, it was taken from the latter by Arthur Wellesley, 12 Aug. 1803, and annexed to the British dominions, June, 1817.

AID, see Ayde.

AID TO THE SICK AND WOUNDED, NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR. On 4 Aug. 1870, soon after the breaking out of the Franco-Prussian war, a meeting was held in London, which established this society, for immediate communication with the international society established at Geneva: see Geneva Convention. The queen became patron and the prince of Wales president; the duke of Manchester, the earl of Shaftesbury, lords Overstone and Bury, sir John Burgoyne, and col. Loyd Lindsay being very energetic supporters. The operations were directed chiefly by capt. H. Brackenbury and sir Vincent Eyre. Capt. Douglas Galton and Mr. Henry Bonham Carter went to the seat of war as commissioners, in Sept. A meeting to promote the incorporation of the society was held 1 Aug. 1871. It was then reported that 296,2987. had been received; together with stores valued at 45,000l.

Col Loyd Lindsay conveyed to Versailles and Paris from the society 40,000l., equally divided between the Germans and French (gratefully acknowledged) about 11 Oct. 1870 The crown-prince of Prussia wrote to colonel Loyd Lindsay--"In this, as on other occasions of distress, the help of the English public has been poured out with a liberal and an impartial hand. The gifts which have been offered in a truly Christian spirit have excited a feeling of heartfelt gratitude among those on whose behalf I speak "

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2 Nov.

2,377%. 33.339 63,677

153,214 208,147 243,444

250,849 280,598 289,674

AIR or ATMOSPHERE. Anaximenes of Miletus (530 B. C.) declared air to be a self-existent deity, and the first cause of everything created. Posidonius (about 79 B. C.) calculated the height of the atmosphere to be 800 stadia. The pressure of air, about 15 lbs. to the square inch, was discovered by Galileo, 1564, and demonstrated by Torricelli, (who invented the barometer) about A. D. 1643, and was found by Pascal, in 1647, to vary with the height. Halley,

Newton, and others, up to the present time have illustrated the agency and influences of this great power by various experiments, and numerous inventions have followed; among others, the AIR-GUN of Guter of Nuremberg about 1656; the AIR-PUMP, invented by Otto von Guericke of Magdeburg about 1650; improved by Robert Boyle in 1657, by Robert Hooke about 1659;* and the AIR-PIPE, invented by Mr. Sutton, a brewer of London, about 1756. The density and elasticity of air were determined by Boyle; and its relation to light and sound by Hooke, Newton, and Derham. The extension of our atmosphere above the surface of the earth, has been long considered as about 45 miles. Its composition, about 77 parts of nitrogen, 21 of oxygen, and 2 of other matters (such as carbonic acid, watery vapour, a trace of ammonia, &c.) was ascertained by Priestley (who discovered oxygen gas in 1774), Scheele (1775), Lavoisier, and Cavendish; and its laws of refraction were investigated by Dr. Bradley, 1737, The researches of Dr. Schönbein, a German chemist of Basel, between 1840 and 1859, led to his discovery of two states of the oxygen in the air, which he calls ozone and antozone. Dr. Stenhouse's Air-filters (in which powdered charcoal is used) were first set up at the Mansion-house, London, in 1854. In 1858, Dr. R. Angus Smith made known a chemical method of ascertaining the amount of organic matter in the air, and published his "Air and Rain" in 1872. See Oxygen, Nitrogen, Ozone, Atmospheric Railway, Balloons, and Pneumatic Despatch.The force of compressed air has been employed in boring the Cenis tunnel (which sec.) An airtelegraph, in which the waves of air in a tube are employed instead of electricity, invented by sig. Guattari, was exhibited in London in 1870. It obtained a gold medal in Naples.

hydro-carburetted air as a source of light; estabAIR-GAS-LIGHT-COMPANY: propose to use

lished 1872.

AIX-LA-CHAPELLE (Aachen), a Roman city, now in Rhenish Prussia. Several ecclesiastical councils held here (799-1165). Here Charlemagne was born, 742, and died, 814; having built the minster (796-804), and conferred many privileges on the city, in which fifty-five emperors have since been crowned. The city was taken by the French in Dec. 1792; retaken by the Austrians, March, 1793; by the French, Sept. 1794: ceded to Prussia, 1814.

First Treaty of Peace signed here was between France and Spain, when France yielded Franche Comté, but retained her conquests in the Netherlands, 2 May, 1668. The second celebrated treaty between Great Britain, France, Holland, Germany, Spain, and Genoa. (By it the treaties of Westphalia in 1648, of Nimeguen in 1678 and 1679, of Ryswick in 1697, of Utrecht in 1713, of Baden in 1714, of the Triple Alliance in 1717, of the Quadruple Alliance in 1718, and of Vienna in 1738, were renewed and confirined.) Signed on the part of England by John, earl of Sandwich, and sir Thomas Robinson, 7 Oct. 1748.

Congress of the sovereigns of Austria, Russia and Prussia, assisted by ministers from England and France, met at Aix-la-Chapelle, and a convention signed, 9 Oct. 1818, which led to the withdrawal of the army of occupation from France.

AIX ROADS, see Rochefort.
AJACCIO, see Corsica.

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AKERMAN (Bessarabia). After being several times taken, it was ceded to Russia in 1812. Here the celebrated treaty between Russia and Turkey was concluded, 4 Sept. 1826, which secured for the former the navigation of the Black Sea, recognised the Danubian principalities, &c.

AKHALZIKH (Armenia). Near here prince Paskiewitch and the Russians defeated the Turks, 24 Aug., and gained the city, 28 Aug. 1828.

ALABAMA, a Southern state, originally part of Georgia, N. America; made a state in 1819: commercial metropolis, Mobile. It seceded from the union by an ordinance passed 11 Jan. 1861, was reunited in 1865; and readmitted to congress, 1868.

ALABAMA, a steam vessel of 900 tons, with engines of 300 horse power, constructed by Messrs. Laird at Birkenhead, for the confederate service; launched 15 May, 1862. During the judicial enquiries after her character, she sailed from the Mersey, 28 July, the day before the British government telegraphed to detain her. Under the command of capt. Semmes, she did great damage to the American mercantile shipping, until her destruction by the federal iron clad Kearsage, capt Winslow, off Cherbourg, 19 June, 1864. Several of his crew were saved by Mr. John Lancaster, in his yacht. Discussion between the two governments, respecting claims for damage by the Alabama

1865 A fruitless convention for their settlement, by a commission signed at London 10 Nov. 1868 Another convention, signed by the earl of Clarendon and Mr. Reverdy Johnson, signed 14 Jan.; rejected by the United States senate 13 April 1869 Joint commission (British, earl de Grey, sir Stafford Northcote and others; American, secretary Fisk, general Schenk, and others,) to settle fishery disputes; Alabama claims &e. Announced, 9 Feb., met at Washington 27 Feb., signed a treaty at Washington 8 May 1871 Commission for Anglo-American claims, met at Washington 25 Sept. commission at

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Jan. 1872

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Formal meeting of the arbitration
Geneva; (adjourns to 15 June)
18 Dec.
The British and American cases, presented 20 Dec.
Great excitement in England at the introduction
of enormous claims for indirect losses into the
American case, loss by transfer of trade from
American to British ships; increased rates of
marine insurance; and losses incident to the pro-
longation of the war.
Correspondence between the governments; British
despatch, 3 Feb.; reply, 1 March; continued ;
counter cases presented at Geneva 15 April 1872
Continued correspondence, draft for a supplemen-
tary treaty; by which both nations agree in future
to abstain from claims for indirect losses pre-
sented to American senate; approved 25 May
The British government object to certain modifica-
tions; further correspondence; great excitement
in parliament; proposed adjournment of the
meeting of the arbitration commission; differences
about the mode of procedure; congress adjourns,
leaving the affair unsettled
10 June
The Arbitration tribunal, consisting of count Fred-
eric Sclopis for Italy, president, baron Staempfl
for Switzerland; vicomte d'Itajuba for Brazil; Mr.
G. F. Adams for United States, and sir Alexander
E. Cockburn for Great Britain, meet at Geneva;
The British government presents a note of the ex-
isting differences; the conference adjourns, 15 June
Further adjournment, 17 June; the arbitrators
voluntarily declare that the indirect claims are
invalid, and contrary to international law, 19
June; president Grant consents to their with-
drawal
25 June

The British government withdraw their application
for adjournment of the conference
27 June
The Arbitration commission records its decision
against the indirect claims, and the proposed long
adjournment, and adjourns to 15 July 28 June
Final meeting; all the arbitrators agree to award
damages for the injuries done by the Alabama;

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14 Sept. 1872

four, for those done by the Florida; and three for those done by the Shenandoah. The judgment not signed by sir A. Cockburn, whose reasons will be published; the damages awarded (including interest), about 3,229,166l. 138. 4d., those claimed 9,476,166l. 138. 4d. (Decision based on the adadmission of a new ex-post facto international law, by Great Britain by the treaty of Washington.) The judgment of sir A. Cockburn (a powerful and indignant reply to unjust aspersions, admitting the award for the Alabama; opposing the other awards; yet counselling submission to the judg ment), signed 14 Sept. and published in London Gazette with other documents 20 Sept. It is stated, that about 1,250,000l. too much were awarded ALAND ISLES (Gulf of Bothnia), taken from Sweden by Russia, 1809; see Bomarsund.

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Feb. 1873

ALANI, a Tartar race, invaded Parthia, 75They joined the Huns in invading the Roman They were subdued by the Visigoths, 452, and empire, and were defeated by Theodosius, 379-382. eventually incorporated with them.

ALARCOS (Central Spain). Here the Spaniards under Alfonso IX., king of Castile, were totally defeated by the Moors, 19 July, 1195.

ALASKA, the name given to the Russian possessions in North America, purchased by the United States by treaty, 13 March, 1867, for 7,200,000 dollars, received 1 Aug. 1868. Sitka is the principal station.

ALBA LONGA, an ancient city of Italy, said to have been founded by Ascanius, son of Eneas, 1152 B. C. Its history is mythical.

Ascanius, son of Eneas, 1152 B. C.; Sylvius Posthumus, 1143; Æneas Sylvius

B.C. 1114

Reign of Latinus, 1048; Alba, 1038; Atys, or Capetus, 1002; Capys, 976; Capetus Reign of Tiberinus, 903; being defeated in battle near the river Albula, he throws himself into the stream, is drowned, and hence this river is called the Tiber

Agrippa: Romulus Silvius, 864; Aventinus, 845: Procas, 808; Numitor

916

895

795

Amulius, the brother of Numitor, seizes the throne, 794 killed by Romulus, who restores his grandfather Numitor

754

Romulus builds and fortifies Rome (see Rome) Alba conquered by Tullus Hostilius, and incorporated with Rome (see Horatii)

753

665

.

ALBANIA, a province in European Turkey, formerly part of the ancient Epirus. The Albanians became independent during the decline of the Greek empire. They were successfully attacked by the Turks in 1388. About 1443, under George Castriot (Scanderbeg), they baffled the efforts of Mahomet II. to subdue them till the siege of Scutari in 1478, when they submitted. Ali Pacha, of Janina, in 1812, defeated the Turkish pachas, and governed Albania ably, but cruelly and despotically, till Feb. 1822, when he and his two sons were slain, after surrendering under a solemn promise of safety. A revolt in Albania was suppressed in 1843.

ALBANS, ST. (Hertfordshire), near the Roman Verulam, derived its name from Alban the British protomartyr, said to have been beheaded during the persecution by Diocletian, 23 June, 286. A stately monastery to his memory was erected about 795, by Offa, king of Mercia, who granted it many privileges. Its superior sat as premier abbot in parliament till the dissolution in 1539. A meeting was held 22 June, 1871, to raise a fund for the restoration of the abbey, the earl of Verulam, chairman. The results were favourable, and the work was confided to Mr. G. Gilbert Scott, who issued a report in June, 1872. Verulam was built on the site

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