COURT OF REQUESTS (or Court of Conscience), first instituted in the reign of Henry VII. 1493, and remodelled by Henry VIII. in 1517. Stow. Established for the summary recovery of small debts under forty shillings; but in the city of London the jurisdiction extends to debts of five pounds. Ashe. The courts of requests superseded in 1847 by the County Courts (which see).".

COURT THEATRE, Sloane-square, Chelsea, opened 25 Jan. 1871; Miss Litton first manager.

COURTRAI (Belgium). Here Robert, count of Artois, who had defeated the Flemings in 1297, was defeated and slain by them, 11 July, 1302. The conflict was named the "Battle of Spurs," from the number of gilt spurs collected.

COURTS MARTIAL are regulated by the Mutiny act, first passed in 1690. The powers of these courts were much discussed in 1867, in consequence of the measures used to suppress the negro insurrection in Jamaica, Oct. 1866.

COURTS OF JUSTICE were instituted at Athens, 1507 B.C. (see Areiopagus); by Moses, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xviii. 25), and in Rome. For these realms, see Chancery, Common Pleas, Exchequer, King's Bench, &c. The citizens of London were privileged to plead their own cause in the courts of judicature, without employing lawyers, except in pleas of the crown, 41 Hen. III. 1257. Stow. The rights of the Irish courts were established by the British parliament in April, 1783.

COURTS OF LAW FEES ACT, passed 20 Aug. 1867, directs the application of surplus fees towards providing new courts of justice. Acts for building these courts were passed in 1865 and 1866. The plan for their erection by Mr. Street was approved of in 1871.

COUTRAS (S. W. France). Here Henry of Navarre totally defeated the duc de Joyeuse and the royalists, 20 Oct. 1587.

COVENANTERS, those persons who in the reign of Charles I. having signed the solemn league and covenant, engaged to stand by each other in opposition to the projects of the king in 1638. The COVENANT or league between England and Scotland (the preceding one modified), solemnly adopted by the parliament, 25 Sept. 1643; was accepted by Charles II. 16 Aug. 1650, but repudiated by him on his restoration in 1661, when it was declared to be illegal by parliament, and copies of it ordered to be burnt. See Cameronians and Bothwell Bridge.

The covenant consisted of six articles:

1. The preservation of the reformed church in Scotland and the reformation of religion in England and Ireland. 2. The extirpation of popery, prelacy, schism, &c.

3

4.

The preservation of the liberties of parliament and the king's person and authority.

The discovery and punishment of all malignants, &c. 5. The preservation of “a blessed peace between these kingdoms;"

6. The assisting all who enter into the covenant: "This will we do as in the sight of God."

COVENT GARDEN (London), corrupted from "Convent Garden," having been the garden of St. Peter's convent. The square was built about

COVENT GARDEN THEATRE sprang out of one in Lincoln's-inn-fields, through a patent granted 14 Chas. II. 1662, to sir William Davenant, whose company was denominated the "duke's servants," as a compliment to the duke of York, afterwards James II.; see under Theatres.-The present theatre by E. Barry was opened 15 May, 1858. The Floral Hall adjoining it was opened 7 March, 1860, with the volunteers' ball.

COVENTRY ACT passed, to prevent malicious maiming and wounding, 6 March, 1671, in consequence of sir John Coventry, K.B., M.P., being maimed in the streets of London, by sir Thomas mouth, 21 Dec. 1670. Repealed 1828. Sandys and others, adherents of the duke of Mon

COVENTRY (Warwickshire). Leofric, earl of Mercia, lord of Coventry, is said to have relieved it from heavy taxes, at the intercession of his wife Godiva, on condition of her riding naked through the streets, about 1057. Processions in her memory and 20 June, 1870. A parliament was held here in took place in 1851; on 23 June, 1862; 4 June, 1866; the reign of Henry IV. called parliamentum indoctum, or the unlearned parliament, because lawyers were excluded, 1404; and in the reign of Henry VI. another met, called parliamentum diabolicum, from the acts of attainder passed against the duke of York and others, 20 Nov. 1459. The town was surrounded with strong walls, three miles in circumference, and twenty-six towers, which were demolished by order of Charles II. in 1662. The ribbon makers here suffered much from want of work in the winter of 1860-1. An industrial exhibition here was opened by earl Granville, 19 June; closed by the earl of Clarendon, 21 Oct. 1867. The BISHOPRIC was founded by Oswy, king of Mercia, 656, and had the double name of Coventry and Lichfield, which was reversed by later bishops. It was so wealthy, that king Offa, by the favour of pope Adrian, made it archiepiscopal; but this title was laid aside on the death of that king. In 1075 the see was removed to Chester; in 1102 to Coventry; and afterwards to its original foundation, Lichfield, but with great opposition from the monks of Coventry. Coventry merged into the bishopric of Lichfield (which see).

COW-POCK INOCULATION; see Small Pox and Vaccination.

Poles elected Cracus for their duke, who built CraCRACOW, a city in Austrian Poland. The cow with the spoils taken from the Franks about 700. by Charles XII. in 1702, and taken and retaken It was their capital, 1320-1609. Cracow was taken several times by the Russians and other confederates. The sovereign was crowned at Cracow until 1764. The Russians, who had taken it 1768, were expelled by Kosciusko, 24 March, 1794; but it surrendered to the Prussians, 15 June same year, and in 1795 was awarded to Austria. Cracow was formed into a republic, June, 1815. Occupied by 10,000 Russians, who followed here the defeated Poles, Sept. 1831. Its independence was extinguished: and it was seized by the emperor of Austria, and incorporated with his empire, 16 Nov. 1846, which was protested against by England, France, Sweden, and Turkey; see Poland. A dreadful fire laid the greater part of the city in ashes, 18 July. 1850. The

CRANIOLOGY (or PHRENOLOGY), the study of the external form of the human skull, as indicative of mental powers and moral qualities. Dr. Gall, the propounder, was a German physician, born March, 1758, and his first observations were among his schoolfellows. Afterwards he studied the heads of criminals and others, and eventually reduced his ideas to a system, marking out the skull like a map. His first lecture was given at Vienna in 1796; but in 1802 the Austrian government prohibited his teaching. In 1800 he was joined by Dr. Spurzheim; and in 1810-12 they published at Paris their work on the "Anatomy and Physiology of the Nervous System, and of the Brain in particular." Gall died in 1828. The researches of Gall and Spurzheim led to increased study of the brain. Combe's "Phrenology," first published in 1819, is the popular English work on this subject. Phrenological societies were formed early in London and Edinburgh.

CRANNOGES, see Lake-dwellings. CRANMER, LATIMER, AND RIDLEY, martyrdom of, see Protestants, note.

CRANNON or CRANON, Thessaly, N. Greece. Near here the Macedonians under Antipater and Craterus defeated the confederated Greeks, twice by sea, and once by land, 322 B.C. The Athenians demanded peace, and Antipater put their orators to death, among whom was Hyperides, who, that he might not betray the secrets of his country when under torture, cut out his tongue, and Demosthenes is said to have taken poison shortly after.

CRANWORTH'S ACT, LORD, to simplify the practice of conveyancers, 23 and 24 Vict. c. 145 (1860).

CRAONNE (N. France). Here Victor and Ney defeated the Prussians under Blücher after a severe contest, 7 March, 1814.

CRAPE. It is said some crape was made by St. Badour, when queen of France, about 680. It is said to have been first made at Bologna. CRAVANT, see Crevant.

CRÈCHES, establishments for temporarily receiving the young children of working mothers; begun at Paris, about 1844; in London (in Rathbone-place) about 1863.

CRECY, or CRESSY (N. France), where Edward III. and his son, Edward the Black Prince, and an army of about 36,800, obtained a great victory over Philip, king of France, with about 130,000, 26 Aug. 1346. John, king of Bohemia (nearly blind); James, king of Majorca; Ralph, duke of Lorraine (sovereign princes); and a number of French nobles, together with 30,000 private men, were slain, while the loss of the English was very smail. The crest of the king of Bohemia (three ostrich feathers, with the motto Ich dien-in English, "I serve") has since been adopted by princes of Wales.

CRÉDIT FONCIER, &c. A plan of providing loans to landowners was introduced by Frederick the Great of Prussia, in 1763, in some of the Prussian provinces, as the best method of alleviating the distresses of the landed interest caused by his wars. The system consists of lending money to landowners on the security of their estates, and providing the loan capital by the issue of debentures charged upon the aggregate mortgaged estates. There are two modes of carrying out this scheme: (1) by means of an association of landowners; (2) by means of a proprietary public company. The former obtains in Eastern Prussia, but the latter is exclusively found in Western Europe.

Crédit Foncier companies have been founded in Hamburg (1782), Western Prussia (1787), Belgium (1841), France (1852), England (1863). Similar companies were formed in all the states of Europe, in India, and in our colonies and dependencies. Henriques.

CRÉDIT MOBILIER: a joint-stock company with this name was established at Paris by Isaac and Emile Péreire, and others, 18 Nov. 1852. It took up or originated trading enterprises of all kinds, applying to them the principle of commandité, or limited liabilities; and was authorised to supersede or buy in any other companies (replacing their shares or bonds in its own scrip), and also to carry on the ordinary business of banking. The funds were to be obtained by a paid-up capital of 23 millions sterling, the issue of obligations at not less than 45 days' date or sight, and the receipt of money on deposit or current account. The society apparently prospered; but was considered by experienced persons a near approach to Law's bank of 1716.

Several of the directors failed, Sept. 1857, no dividend paid

May, 1858

said to have defeated the Britons here, 457.

CRAYONS, coloured substances made into paste, and dried into pencils, were known in France about 1422; and improved by L'Oriot, 1748.

CREASOTE, or KREASOTE (discovered by Reichenbach about 1833), a powerful antiseptic and coagulator of albuminous tissue, is obtained by the destructive distillation of wood and other organic matters. It has been used for the preservation of

meat, timber, &c.

CREATINE (from the Greek kreas, flesh), the chemical principle of flesh, was discovered in 1835 by E. Chevreul, and has been investigated by Liebig, Gregory, and others.

CREATION OF THE WORLD. The date given by the English bible, and by Usher, Blair, and some others, is 4004 B.C. There are about 140 different dates assigned to the Creation, varying from 3616 to 6984 B.C. Dr. Hales gives 5411; see Eras.

in London

E. and I. Péreire withdrew from the management; the company failed, and the capital was said to have disappeared

1863

Oct. 1867

The high court of appeal decided that MM. Péreire and other directors were responsible for their acts, and that damages should be given to the shareholders 1 Aug. 1863

.

.

CREEDS, see Confessions of Faith. CREMERA, BATTLE OF, see Fabii. CREMONA (N. Italy), a city founded by the Romans, 221 B.C. It became an independent republic in 1107, but was frequently subjugated by its neighbours, Milan and Venice, and partook of their fortunes. In Nov. 1859 it became part of the kingdom of Italy.

CRESCENT, a symbol of sovereignty among the Greeks and Romans, and the device of Byzantium, now Constantinople, whence the Turks adopted it. The Crescent has given name to three orders of knighthood; founded by Charles I. of

Naples, 1268; by Réné of Anjou, in 1448; by the sultan Selim, in 1801; the last is still in existence. CRESPY (N. France). Here was signed a treaty between Charles V. of Germany and Francis I. of France, 18 Sept. 1544. The former renounced Burgundy, and the latter Italy.

CRESTS are ascribed to the Carians. Richard I. (1189) had a crest on the helmet resembling a plume of feathers. The English kings had generally crowns above their helmets; that of Richard

In 1856, the expenses for criminal prosecutions were 194,912l. 48. 8d. 15 persons were executed for murder in 1856 (four foreigners), 13 in 1857, ti in 1858 (four foreigners), and 9 (four for wife-murder) in 1859. 2666 persons were liberated on tickets-of-leave in 1856.

On 17 Feb. 1857, of 126 persons thus liberated, 58 were believed to be living honestly.

In 1861, 1862, and 1863, the system was considered to have failed through the numerous crimes committed by ticket-of-leavers; it was modified by the Penal Servitude act, in 1864.

Sentences to penal servitude, 1869, 2006; in 1870, 1788 (the smallest number on record).

a report, have been annually published by government, commenced with 1856.

CRETE, now CANDIA (which see).

CREVANT-SUR-YONNE (N. France), was besieged by John Stuart, earl of Buchan, with a French army, July, 1423, and relieved by the earl of Salisbury with an army of English and Burgundians. After a severe contest, the French were totally defeated.

CREVELDT, near Cleves (W. Prussia). Here on 23 June, 1758, prince Ferdinand of Brunswick defeated the French under the count of Clermont.

CRICKET, an ancient English game, said to be identical with the "club ball" of the 14th century. Rules were laid down in 1774 by a committee of noblemen and gentlemen, including the duke of Dorset and sir Horace Mann. In 1861 the All England Eleven gained and lost games in Australia; and in Sept. 1868, they beat the New York Twentytwo. In 1867-68, Australian cricketers visited England.

CRIME. About 1856 it was computed that a fifteenth part of the population of the United Kingdom lived by crime." The increase in education and manufactures is gradually reducing this proportion. From 1848 to 1865 there had been no commitment for political offences, such as treason or sedition. The returns of thirty-two years show that crime absolutely and relatively diminished (Sept. 1866). See Executions, Trials, Poisoning, France, 1871, &c. CONVICTIONS (BY TRIAL) IN ENGLAND AND WALES.

11 Aug. 1869 21 Aug. 1871 relation to 1861-1871

"Statistical Criminal Act" passed "Prevention of Crimes Act" passed Great decrease in crimes of violence in the increase of population CRIME International Congress for the prevention and repression of crime met in the Middle Temple, London .3 July, 1872

CRIMEA, or CRIM TARTARY, a peninsula in the Euxine or Black Sea, the ancient Taurica Chernesus, colonised by the Greeks about 550 B.C. The Milesians founded the kingdom of Bosporus, now Kertch, which about 108 B.C. formed part of the dominion of Mithridates, king of Pontus, whose descendants continued to rule the country under Roman protection till the irruption of the Goths, Huns, &c. about A.D. 258. About 1237 it fell into the hands of the Mongols under Genghis Khan; soon after the Venetians established commercial stations, with a lucrative trade, but were supplanted by the Genoese, who were permitted to rebuild and fortify Kaffa, about 1261. In 1475 Mahomet II. expelled the Genoese, and subjected the peninsula to the Ottoman yoke; permitting the government to remain in the hands of the native khans, but closing the Black Sea to Western Europe. In 1774, by the intervention of the empress Catherine II., the Crimea recovered its independence: but on the abdication of the khan in 1783, the Russians took possession of the country, after a war with Turkey, and retained it by the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. The Crimea (now Taurida), was divided into eight governments in 1802. War having been declared against Russia by England and France, 28 March, 1854, large masses of troops were sent to the East, which, after remaining some time at Gallipoli, and other places, sailed for Varna, where they disembarked 29 May. An expedition against the Crimea having been determined on, the allied British, French, and Turkish forces, amounting to 58,000 men (25,000 British), commanded by lord Raglan and marshal St. Arnaud, sailed from Varna, 3 Sept. and landed on the 14th, 15th, and 16th, without opposition, at Old Fort, near Eupatoria, about 30 miles from Sebastopol. On the 20th they attacked the Russians, between 40,000 and 50,000 strong (under prince Menschikoff), entrenched on the heights of Alma, supposed to be unassailable. After a sharp contest the Russians were totally routed. See Alma and Russo-Turkish War. Peace was proclaimed in April, 1856, and the allies quitted the Crimea 12 July following.

CRIMINAL LAWS OF ENGLAND. Their great severity, pointed out by sir Samuel Romilly, sir James Mackintosh, and others, about 1818, was considerably mitigated by sir R. Peel's acts, passed 1826-8. The criminal law was consolidated by 24 and 25 Vict. cc. 94-100, 1861. Some defects were amended by an act passed in 1867.

CRIMISUS, a river in Sicily, near which Timoleon defeated the Carthaginians, 339 B.C.

CRIMPING-HOUSES were used to entrap persons into the army; hence the name of "crimp sergeant." Some of them in London were destroyed by the populace, in consequence of a young man who had been enticed into one being killed in endeavouring to escape, 16 Sept. 1794.

to have collected twenty-five at one time in his amphitheatre, where they were killed by gladiators.

CROIX, ST., a W. India Island, purchased from the French by Christian VI. king of Denmark, in 1733; taken by sir Alexander Cochrane, 22 Dec. 1807; restored in 1814.

CRIPPLEGATE (London), was so-called from the lame beggars who sat there, so early as the year 1010. The gate was new built by the brewers of London in 1244; and was pulled down and sold for 917. in July, 1760. The poet Milton was buried in the church near it, 12 Nov. 1674. See London.

CRISPIN AND CRISPIANUS are said to have been two saints, born at Rome, from whence they travelled to Soissons, in France, to propagate the Christian religion. They worked as shoemakers; but the governor of the town discovering them to be Christians, ordered them to be beheaded, about 288. Their day is 25 Oct.

CRITH (from the Greek krithe, a barleycorn or small weight,) a term suggested by Dr. A. W. Hofmann (about 1864) to express the volume-weight of gases; a cube containing 1 litre of hydogen (00896 gramme) to be the unit. Hydrogen being i crith, oxygen will be 16, nitrogen 14 criths.

CRITICS. The first society of them was formed 276 B.C. Blair. Varro, Cicero, Apollonius, and Aristarchus were ancient critics. In modern times the Journal des Sçavans was the earliest periodical critical work. It was originated by Denis de Sallo, ecclesiastical councillor in the parliament of France, and was first published at Paris, 30 May, 1655, and is still continued. Jean Le Clerc's "Ars Critica," published 1696, is said to be the earliest systematic was the Review of Daniel Defoe (the term being treatise. The first work of this kind in England invented by himself), published in Feb. 1703. The Works of the Learned began 1710, and the Waies of Literature in 1714; discontinued in 1722. See Reviews.

The legality of fair criticism was established in the English courts, in Feb. 1794, when an action that excited great attention, brought by an author against a reviewer for a severe critique upon his work, was determined in favour of the defendant on the principle that criticism is allowable, however sharp, if just, and not malicious.

CROATIA, conquered by Coloman, king of Hungary, in 1102, was with that country united to Austria in 1526. The Croatian diet was abolished in Nov. 1861. The Croats protested against incorporation with Hungary, 25 May, 1867, and their diet (including Croatia and Slavonia), at Agram, was dissolved 27 May. The union of Croatia with Hungary was recognised by a Croatian deputation 27 May, 1868, and Croatian delegates entered the Hungarian diet 24 Nov. The emperor and empress visited Agram 9-10 March, 1869.

CROCKERY-WARE, see Pottery.

CROCODILES were reverenced as divinities by the Egyptians. The emperor Augustus is said

CRONSTADT, Russia, founded by Peter the

war with Russia, 1854-5.

CROOK, a bishop's pastoral staff or crook, distinet from the crozier. Nine pastoral staffs have been recently presented to English bishops; one to the bishop of Hereford, Dr. James Atlay, in Jan. 1872.

CROPREDY BRIDGE, near Banbury, Oxfordshire. Here the royalists defeated sir William Waller and the army of the parliament, 29 June, 1644.

CROQUET. This which became common game, in Britain about 1850, is said to be a revival of the old Pall Mall (which see).

CROSIER, a staff surmounted by a cross, borne before an archbishop, was in use in the 4th century. The bearing a crosier before ecclesiastics is mentioned in the life of St. Cæsarea of Arles about 500.

CROSS. That on which the Redeemer suffered on Mount Calvary, was said to have been found at Jerusalem, with two others, deep in the ground, by St. Helena, 3 May, 328 (termed the Invention of the Cross); Christ's being distinguished from those of the thieves by a sick woman being cured by touching it. It was carried away by Chosroes, king of Persia, on the plundering of Jerusalem; but was recovered by the emperor Heraclius (who defeated him in battle), 14 Sept. 615, and that day has since been commemorated as "the festival of the Exaltation of the Cross," established in 642.

It is asserted by church writers that a great shining

cross was seen in the heavens by Constantine, and that it led him to adopt it on his standard, with the inscription "In hoc signo vinces;" "Under this sign thou shalt conquer." With this (Labarum) he advanced to Rome, where he vanquished Maxentius, 27 Oct. 312. Lenglet. Signing with the Cross was first practised by Christians to distinguish themselves from the Pagans, about 110

In the time of Tertullian, 260, it was deemed effica-
cious against poison, witchcraft, &c.

Crosses in churches and chambers were introduced
about 431; and set up on steeples about
Crosses in honour of queen Eleanor were set up in
the places where her hearse rested, between 1296
(when she died) and

260

568

.

1307

Crosses and idolatrous pictures were removed from churches, and crosses in the streets demolished by order of parliament

1641

Maids of the Cross were a community of young women who made vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience, instituted in

1625

1668

CROSSED CHEQUES, see Drafts.

CROTONA (S. Italy), a city founded by the Achæan Greeks about 710 B.C. Here Pythagoras