May to Sept.; returns to Alexandria Sultan of Turkey visits Egypt Increased cultivation of cotton in Egypt At the demand of the sultan, the viceroy sends troops to repress the insurgents in Arabia, May, 1864 Opening of part of the Suez canal (which see), 15 Aug. 1865 Direct succession to the viceroyalty granted by the porte 30 Jan. 1867 May, 1866 Designated “sovereign" by the sultan 9 June, 1867 Egyptian legislative chamber opened with a speech from the viceroy 27 Nov. 1866 Viceroy invested with Order of the Bath (as G. C.B.) by lord Clarence Paget The viceroy visits Paris. He arrives in London 6 July; received by the queen at Windsor, 8; by lord Derby, 10; by the lord mayor, 11; departs 18 July, The viceroy (now termed the Khedive) visited England, 22 June, 1869 Present at the inauguration of the Suez canal, 16 June-5 July, 17 Nov The differences between the sultan and himself respecting prerogatives arranged, the viceroy giving up the power of imposing taxes and of contracting loans Dec. The first stone of the new port laid by the khedive, 15 May, 1871 Military expedition up the Nile, under sir Samuel Baker, to abolish slave trade; started 7 Jan. 1870; he met with determined resistance from the governors implicated in the trade; took possession of Gondokoro (an old slave depot) in the name of the viceroy; made war with opposing tribe, the Baris, and subdued them; founded a town, Ismailia; reported in a letter to the prince of Wales that the slave trade on the White Nile had disappeared 21 Aug. Reported in another letter, disaffection among his troops, and shortness of provisions 19 Oct. The khedive's son, prince Hassan, made D.C.L. at Oxford 107 89 Sir Samuel Baker's expedition defeated; assistance to be sent by the viceroy. 13 June, 1872 The khedive visits the sultan; Constantinople rejoices. 25 June, Feb. 1873 KHEDIVES OR HEREDITARY VICEROYS Sept. 30 Egypt visited by Adrian, 122; by Severus. 616 June, 638 969 22 Dec. 640 1163-96 1250 1517 Government of the Mamelukes established Selim I., emperor of the Turks, conquers Egypt It is governed by beys till a great part of the country is conquered by the French, under Bonaparte (see Alexandria) 1798-99 The invaders dispossessed by the British, and the 1801 1 March, 1811 Arrival of Belzoni, 1815; he removes statue of Memnon, 1816; explores temples, &c. Formation of the Mahmoud canal, connecting Alexandria with the Nile. Mehemet Pacha revolts and invades Syria 1817 1820 1831 His son Ibrahim takes Acre, 27 May; overruns Syria; defeats the Turks at Konieh 21 Dee, 1832 He advances on Constantinople, which is entered by Russian auxiliaries, 3 April; war ends with convention of Kutayah 4 May, 1833 Mehemet again revolts, claiming hereditary power; Ibrahim defeats the Turks at Nezib 24 June, 1839 England, Austria, Russia, and Prussia undertake to expel Ibrahim from Syria; Napier bombards Beyrout, 10 Sept.; Acre taken by the British and Austrian fleets, under sir R. Stopford, 3 Nov.; the Egyptians quit Syria 21 Nov., et seq. 1840 (nearly independent). 1806. Mehemet Ali Pacha; abdicated Sept. 1848; dies 2 Aug. 1849. 1848. Ibrahim (adopted son), Sept.; dies 9 or ro Nov. 1848 Abbas (his son), 1o Nov.; dies 14 July, 1854. 1854. Said (brother), 14 July; dies 18 Jun. 1863. 1863. Ismail (nephew), 18 Jan. (born 1830). Heir, his son, Mechmet, aged 19. EGYPTIAN ERA, &c. The old Egyptian year was identical with the era of Nabonassar, beginning 26 Feb. 747 B.C., and consisted of 365 days only. It was reformed 30 B.C., at which period the commencement of the year had arrived, by continually receding to the 29 Aug., which was determined to be in future the first day of the year. To reduce to the Christian era, subtract 746 years 125 days. The canicular or heliacal period of the Egyptians and Ethiopians (1460 years) began when Sirius or the dog star emerged from the rays of the sun, on 20 July, 2785 B.C., and extended to 1325 B.C. This year comprised 12 months of 30 days, with 5 supplementary days. EHRENBREITSTEIN (Honour's broadstone), a strong Prussian fortress on the Rhine, formerly belonged to the electors of Treves. It was often besieged. It surrendered to the French general Jourdain, 24 Jan. 1799. The fortifications were destroyed on its evacuation, 9 Feb. 1801, at the peace of Luneville. The works have been restored since 1814. EIDER, a river, separating Schleswig from Holstein, was passed by the Austrians and Prussians, 4 Feb. 1864. EIDOGRAPH, see Pantagraph. EIKON BASILIKE (“the Portraiture of His Sacred Majesty in his Solitudes and Sufferings"), a book of devotion formerly attributed to king Charles I., but now generally believed to have been written partially, if not wholly, by bishop Gauden, and possibly approved by the king: it was published in 1648, and sold with great rapidity. pointed, and three to be selected from all the judges to try election cases; justices Willes and Blackburn, and baron Martin were the first appointed, Nov. 1868. ELECTOR PALATINE, see Palatinate. ELECTORS for members of parliament for counties were obliged to have forty shillings a-year in land, 8 Hen. VI. 1429. Among the acts relating to electors are the following: Act depriving excise and custom-house officers and contractors with government of their votes, 1782; see Customs. Act to regulate polling, 1828. Great changes were made by the Reform Acts of 1832, 1867, and 1868. EISENACH DECLARATION, see Ger- County elections act, 1836; see Bribery. The many, 1859. EISTEDDFODD, see Bards. EL ARISCH, Egypt, captured by the French under Reynier, 18 Feb. 1799. A convention was signed here between the grand vizier and Kleber for the evacuation of Egypt by the French, 28 Jan. 1800. He beat the Turks at Heliopolis on 20 March; and was assassinated on 14 June following. ELBA, ISLE OF (on the coast of Tuscany), taken by admiral Nelson in 1796; but abandoned 1797. Elba was conferred upon Napoleon (with the title of emperor) on his relinquishing the throne of France, 5 April, 1814. He secretly embarked hence with about 1200 men in hired feluccas, on the night of 25 Feb. 1815, landed in Provence, I March, and soon after recovered the crown; see France, 1815. Elba was resumed by the grand duke of Tuscany, July, 1815. ELCHINGEN, Bavaria. Here Ney beat the Austrians, 14 Oct. 1805, and was made duke of Elchingen. forty shilling freeholders in Ireland lost their privilege in 1829. By Dodson's act, passed in 1861, university electors are permitted to vote by sending balloting papers. Conrad 1. king of Germany (912-918), the dukes ELECTORS OF GERMANY. In the reign of gradually independent of the sovereign, and suband counts, from being merely officers, became sequently elected him. In 919 they confirmed the nomination of Henry I. duke of Saxony by Conrad as his successor. In the 13th century seven princes (the archbishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, the king of Bohemia, the electors of Brandenburg and Saxony, and the elector Palatine), assumed the exclusive privilege of nominating the emperor. Robertson. An eighth elector (Bavaria) was made in 1648; and a ninth (Hanover) in 1692. The number was reduced to eight at 1777 (by the elector palatine acquiring Bavaria) and increased to ten at the peace of Luneville, in 1801. On the dissolution of the German empire, the crown of Austria was made hereditary, 1804-1806; see Ger many. ELECTRIC CLOCK; see p. 234. ELDERS (in Greek, presbuteroi), in the early church equivalent with episcopoi, or bishops (see 1 Tim. iii. and Titus i.), who afterwards became a ELECTRICITY, from the Greek elektron, distinct and superior order. Elders in the presby-rubbed amber are said to have been known to electrum, amber. The electrical properties of terian churches are laymen. EL DORADO (the "Gilded Man"). When the Spaniards had conquered Mexico and Peru, they began to look for new sources of wealth, and having heard of a golden city ruled by a king or priest, smeared in oil and rolled in gold dust (which report was founded on a merely annual custom of the Indians), they organised various expeditions into the interior of South America, which were accompanied with disasters and crimes; about 1560. Raleigh's expeditions in search of gold in 1596 and 1617 led to his fall. ELEASA, Palestine. Here Judas Maccabæus was defeated and slain by Bacchides and Alcimus, and the Syrians, about 161 B.C. (1 Macc. ix.) ELEATIC SECT, founded at Elea in Sicily, by Xenophanes, of Colophon, about 535 B.C., whither he had been banished on account of his wild theory of God and nature. He supposed that the stars were extinguished every morning and rekindled at night; that eclipses were occasioned by a partial extinction of the sun; that there were several suns and moons for the convenience of the different climates of the earth, &c. Strabo. Zeno (about 364) was an Eleatic. ELECTIONS PETITIONS. The laws respecting them were consolidated in 1828, 1839, and 1844. An act passed in 1848 was amended in 1865. By the act of 1868, 3 new judges were ap Thales, 600 B.C.; see Magnetism. FRICTIONAL OR STATIC ELECTRICITY. Gilbert records that other bodies besides amber generate electricity when rubbed, and that all substances may be attracted . Otto von Guericke constructed the first electric machine (a globe of sulphur), about Stephen Gray, aided by Wheeler, discovered that Boyle published his electrical experiments the human body conducts electricity, that eleetricity acts at a distance (motion in light bodies being produced by frictional electricity at a distance of 666 feet), the fact of electric induction, and other phenomena 1600 1647 1676 1720-36 Dufay originated his dual theory of two electric fluids: one vitreous, from rubbed glass, &c., the other resinous, from rubbed amber, resin, &c.; and showed that two bodies similarly electrified repel each other, and attract bodies oppositely electrified, about . 1733 The Leyden jar (vial or bottle) discovered by Kleist, 1745, and by Cunæus and Muschenbroek, of Leyden; Winckler constructed the Leyden ba ery. 1746 Desaguliers classified bodies as electrics and non electrics Important researches of Watson, Canton, Beccaria and Nollet 1742 1740-7 Franklin announced his theory of a single fluid, terming the vitreous electricity positive, and the resinous negative, 1747; and demonstrated the identity of the electric spark and lightning, drawing down electricity from a cloud by means of a kite June, 1752 At a pic-nic, he killed a turkey by the electric spark, and roasted it by an electric jack before a fire kindled by the electric bottle" 1743 Discoveries of Galvani and Volta (see Voltaic Elec-" tricity, below) 1791-3 Ersted, of Copenhagen, discovered electro-mag- Faraday produced a spark by the sudden separation Armstrong discovered, and Faraday explained, the The ELECTROPHORUS, a useful apparatus for ob- 1831 1834 1840 1855 1840 1782 C. F. Varley's reciprocal electrophorus" invented 1862 Sir William Thomson's "electric replenisher" described. Jan. 1868 Mr. Apps' great inductorium, or induction coil, giving the largest sparks ever seen, exhibited at the Royal Polytechnic Institution 29 March, 1869 ELECTROSCOPE and ELECTROMETER, as the terms signify, are apparatus for ascertaining the presence and quantity of electrical excitation. Pith-balls were employed in various ways as electroscopes by Gilbert, Canton, and others. Dr. Milner invented an electrometer similar to Peltier's, 1783. The gold leaf electrometer was invented by rev. A. Bennet, 1789, and improved by Singer, about 1810; Lane's discharging electrometer is dated 1767; Henley's, 1772; Bohnenberger's electroscope, 1820; Peltier's induction electrometer, about 1848 GALVANISM, OR VOLTAIC-ELECTRICITY, AND ELECTRO-MAGNETISM. scope ELECTRO-MAGNETISM began with Œrsted's discovery of the action of the electric current on the magnetic needle, 1819; proved by Ampère, who exhibited the action of the voltaic pile upon the magnetic needle, and of terrestrial magnetism upon the voltaic current; he also arranged the conducting wire in the form of a helix or spiral, invented a galvanometer, and imitated the magnet by a spiral galvanic wire Arago magnetised a needle by the electric current, and attracted iron filings by the connecting wire of a galvanic battery The first electro-magnet Induction of electric currents discovered by Faraday and announced 1834 1840 1820 1825 1831 Becquerel invented an electro-magnetic balance Faraday discovered the electro-magnetic rotative force developed in a magnet by voltaic electricity, 1831; experiments on the induction of a voltaic current, &c. 1834-5 1837 Sturgeon made a bar of soft iron magnetic by surrounding it with coils of wire, and sending an electric current through the wire. Joseph Henry announced his discovery of secondary 2 Nov. 1838 1842 currents Magneto-electricity applied to electro-plating by Woolwich Breguet used electro-magnetic force to manufacture mathematical instruments, about MAGNETO-ELECTRICITY (the converse of Ersted's discovery of electro-magnetism), discovered by Faraday, who produced an electric spark by suddenly separating a coiled keeper from a permanent magnet; and found that an electric current existed in a copper disc rotated between the poles of a magnet 1854 1831 The Magneto-Electric machine arose out of Faraday's discovery, and was first made at Paris by Pixii, 1832; and in London by Saxton Rulimkortf's magneto-electric induction coil constructed, about 1850 1833 H. Wilde's description of his machine (a powerful generator of dynamic electricity, by means of permanent magnets) and the inagneto-electric machine (constructed in 1865) sent to the Royal Society by professor Faraday and reported, 26 April, 1866 The light (resembling bright moon-light) exhibited on the top of Burlington house 2 March, 1867 Dynamo-magneto-electric machines, by Wheatstone Ampere invents his telegraphic arrangement, cmploying the magnetic needle and coil, and the galvanic battery . . 1747 1816 1820 1823 1837 F. Ronalds publishes an account of his electric telegraph Professor Wheatstone constructs an electro-magnetic apparatus, by which 30 signals are conveyed through nearly four miles of wire. June, 1836 Telegraphs invented by Schilling, Gauss, and Weber (magneto-electric), 1833; by Steinheil and by Masson, 1837; by Morse (died 1872). The magnetic needle telegraph patented by (aft. sir Wm. F.) Cooke and (aft. sir) Charles Wheatstone. (The Society of Arts Albert gold medal was awarded to them in June, 1867) 12 June, Mr. Cooke set up the telegraph line on the Great Western Railway, from Paddington to West Drayton, 1838-9; on the Blackwall line, 1840; and in Glasgow Wheatstone's alphabetical printing telegraph patented 1841 The first telegraph line in America set up from Washington to Baltimore 1844 The murderer Tawell apprehended by means of the telegraph 1845 The electric telegraph company established (having purchased Cooke and Wheatstone's telegraphic inventions) 1846 Gutta percha suggested as an insulator by Faraday 1847 Professor Charles Wheatstone drew plans of a projected submarine telegraph between Dover and Calais 1840 1847 Mr. John Watkins Brett submitted a similar plan to Louis Philippe without success He obtained permission from Louis Napoleon to make a trial, 1847; took place 28 Aug. 1850 The connecting wires (27 miles long) were placed on the government pier in Dover harbour, and in the Goliath steamer were coiled about 30 miles in length of telegraphic wire, enclosed in a covering of gutta-percha, half an inch in diameter. The Goliath started from Dover, unrolling the telegraphic wire as it proceeded, and allowing it to drop to the bed of the sea. In the evening the steamer arrived on the French coast, and the wire was run up the cliff at cape Grisnez to its terminal station, and messages were sent to and fro between England and the French coast. But the wire, in settling into the sea-bottom, crossed a rocky ridge, and snapped in two, and thus the enterprise for that time failed. New arrangements were soon made, and on a scale of greater magnitude; and the telegraph was opened; the opening and closing prices of the funds in Paris were known on the London stock exchange within business hours, and guns were fired at Dover by communication from Calais, Communications complete between Dover and Ostend and between Portpatrick and Donaghadee, House's printing telegraph, 1846; Bain's electrochemical telegraph, 1846; Hughes's system, 1855: the American combination system (of the preceding), which can convey 2000 words an hour, adopted by the American telegraph company, Wheatstone's automatic printing telegraph patented Jan. 1859 It was stated that there are in work 15,000 miles of electric telegraph wire in Great Britain; 80,000 on the continent of Europe; and 48,000 in America ; and altogether about 150,000 miles laid down in the world 1860 July, 1862 Bonelli s typo-electric telegraph, made known and company established, 1860; and tried between Liverpool and Manchester, 1863; promised revival, June, 1864 An "electric telegraph" conference, at which 16 states (not Great Britain) were represented, met at Paris March, 1865 The Telegraph Act (see Telegraph) passed 31 July, 1868 Society of Telegraph Engineers established, 28 Feb. 1872 ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH. A plan to unite Europe and America by telegraph was entered at the government registration office in June, 1845, by Mr. J. Watkins Brett, who made proposals to the government, which were not accepted. This plan was attempted to be carried out by a company in 1857 and 1858, with the concurrence of the British and American governments. 2500 miles of wire were manufactured, and tested in March, 1857 The laying it down commenced at Valentia, in The vessels employed were the Niagara and Susque 11 Aug. A second attempt to lay the cable failed through a violent storm, 20-21 June, 1858 The third voyage was successful. The junction between the two continents was completed by the laying down of 2050 miles of wire from Valentia, in Ireland, to Newfoundland. The first two messages, on 5 Aug., were from the queen of England to the president of the United States, and his reply 5 Aug. This event caused great rejoicing in both countries; but, unfortunately, the insulation of the wire gradually became more faulty, and the power of transmitting intelligence utterly ceased on 4 Sept. A new company was formed The Great Eastern steamer, engaged to lay down 2300 miles of wire, with 25,000 tons burden, sailed for Valentia, Ireland, from the Thames, commanded by capt. Anderson, accompanied by professor Win. Thomson and Mr. Cromwell F. Varley, to superintend the paying out the cable, 15 July, 1865 After connecting the wire with the land, the Great Eastern sailed from Valentia 23 July, Telegraphic communication with the vessel (interrupted by two faults, due to defective insulation, caused by pieces of metal pressed into the guttapercha coating, which were immediately repaired) finally ceased on 2 Aug. The apparatus for raising the wire proving insufficient, the vessel returned, and arrived at the Medway 19 Aug. Atlantic telegraph company reconstituted as the Anglo-American telegraph company limited, March, 1866 The Great Eastern, with a new cable, sailed from the Medway, 30 June; the shore-end at Valentia was spliced with the main cable, and the Great Eastern sailed, 13 July; 1200 miles of cable had been laid, 22 July; the cable was completely laid at Heart's Content, Newfoundland, and a message sent to lord Stanley, 27 July; message from the queen to president of the United States sent, 28 July," From the queen, Osborne, to the president of the United States, Washington. The queen congratulates the president on the successful completion of an undertaking which she hopes may serve as an additional bond of union between [It was stated (in Sept. 1866) that the engineer of the cable passed signals through 3700 miles of wire by means of a battery formed in a lady's thimble.] The U. S. congress voted a gold medal to Cyrus Field, for his exertions connected with Atlantic telegraphs 7 March, 1867 At a dinner given to Cyrus Field at Willis's Rooms, London, telegraphic messages were exchanged between the company and lord Monck, viceroy of Canada and president Johnson 1 July, 1868 French Atlantic Telegraph company formed; French government grant concession for 20 years, from 1 Sept. 1869, to Julius Reuter and baron Emile d'Erlangen 8 July, An act to enable H.M.'s postmaster-general to acquire, work, and maintain electric telegraphs, passed, 31 July, Anglo-Danish telegraph (Newbiggin to Copenhagen) completed 31 Aug. European end of the French Atlantic cable laid at Brest, 17 June; the American end at Duxbury, Massachusetts 23 July, 1869 Reported union between the Anglo-American and French Atlantic telegraph companies Jan. 1870 The British government began to work postal telegraph 5 Feb. Telegraph between Bombay and Suez completed Result of the "Derby" race sent to Calcutta in five minutes 24 May, 1871 Statue of Morse at New York uncovered, 10 June, Fourth telegraph conference opened at Rome, under the auspices of the Italian government (next to be at St. Petersburg in 1875) 18 Dec. Telegraph between Adelaide and Port Darwin, Australia, completed 22 Aug. 1872 Message from the mayor of Adelaide received by the lord mayor of London, and replied to, 21 Oct. ELECTRIC CLOCK, &c. Professor Wheatstone invented an electro-magnetic telegraph clock in 1840. Clocks worked by electricity, invented by Mr. Alexander Bain, Mr. Shepherd, and others, appeared in the exhibition of 1851. An electric clock, with four dials, illuminated at night, was set up for some time in front of the office of the electric telegraph company, in the Strand, London, July, 1852. A time-ball was set up by Mr. French, in Cornhill, in 1856. In 1860, Mr. C. V. Walker so connected the clock of the Greenwich observatory with that of the South-eastern station. London, that they could be controlled by electricity. ELECTRIC LIGHT. Apparatus for regulating the electric light were devised in 1846, and shown by Staite and Petrie in 1848; by Foucault soon after. Jules Duboscq's Electric Lamp (the most perfect of the kind) appeared at the Paris exhibition in 1855; and was first employed by professor Tyndall, at the Royal Institution, London, for illustrating lectures on light and colours, in The works of new Westminster bridge were illuminated by Watson's electric light, in. M. Serrin, of Paris, exhibited his improved electric lamp, in . " 1856 1858 1862 The Mogneto-Electric light (the most brilliant artificial light yet produced), by means of apparatus devised by Professor Holines, was successfully tried at the South Foreland lighthouse, Dover, in 1858 and 1859 The French government ordered eight lighthouses on their coast to be illuminated by electric light, April, 1861 MM. Dumas and Benoit constructed an electric safety lamp in. 1862 ELECTRIC LOOM. M. Bonelli, of Turin, in 1854, devised a plan of employing magnets and électromagnets in weaving, thereby superseding the tedious and costly Jacquard system of cards. His loom was set up in London in 1859, and lec tured upon at the Royal Institution by professor Faraday, on. 8 June, 1860 ELECTRO-PHYSIOLOGY. Aristotle and Pliny refer to the powers of the torpedo, whilst Walsh and Ingenhouss, the discoveries of Galvani in 1790, and the researches of Matteucci about 1830, have greatly advanced the science. Fowler experimented on animals with galvanism, 1793; and Aldini, 1796, who produced muscular contractions in a criminal recently executed, 1803; Ure did the same 1818 May, 1855 Du Bois Reymond lectured on animal electricity at the Royal Institution, and showed the existence of an electric current, developed by action of the human muscles, in ELECTROPHONE, invented by Dr. Strethill Wright, for producing sound by electric currents of high tension: one laid before the Royal Scottish Society of Arts 25 April, 1864 ELECTRO-TINT. Mr. Palmer, of Newgate-street, London, patented inventions by which engravings may not only be copied from other engraved plates, but the engraving itself actually produced, by electrical agency, and one process he termed glyphography. ELECTRO-TYPE OF DEPOSIT. Mr. Spencer, in England, and professor Jacobi, in Russia, made the first successful experiments in this art in 1837 and 1838. Since then, Mr. A. Smee and others have perfected the processes. In 1840, Mr. Rob. Murray applied black-lead to non-metallic bodies as a conducting surface. In 1840, Mr. Ruolz and Mr. Elkington applied it to gilding and silver plating. Since 1850, printing types and woodcuts, and casts from them, have been electrotyped with copper, and the process is now largely adopted in the arts. 1841-2 Messrs. C. Wheatstone and F. A. Abel experiment on the application of electricity to military purposes. 1861 The Electro-block company established, 1860; by their processes the enlargement and reduction of engravings, obtained by india-rubber, can be immediately transferred to a lithographic stone, and multiplied at pleasure. Leech's engravings, so enlarged, were coloured by himself, and exhibited in OZONE, generated by a current produced by Wild's magneto-electric machine, employed to bleach sugar, at Whitechapel (Edwd. Beane's patent) 1862 Aug. 1868 |