1744 1770 Francis Lacon, ph. George Herbert, p. Ben Jonson, d. 1574 Philip Massinger, d. 1584 1640 Jeremy Taylor, t.. 1613 1667 John Milton, p. 1608 1674 Isaac Barrow, t. 1630 1677 Samuel Butler, p. John Bunyan, t. John Dryden, p. John Locke, ph. Joseph Addison, e. Matthew Prior, p. Richard Steele, e. Daniel De Foe, n. pol.. John Gay, p. Alexander Pope, p. 1688 Jonathan Swift, n. p. Tobias Smollett, n. Oliver Goldsmith, n. p. David Hume, h. ph.. Benjamin Franklin, ph. pol. William Robertson, h. Edward Gibbon, h. Robert Burns, p.. William Cowper, p. Percy B. Shelley, p. 1792 George lord Byron, p. Walter Scott, n. p. Samuel T. Coleridge, p. ph. . 1772 1834 Charles Lamb, e. . 1775 1834 William Cobbett, pol. e. 1762 Robert Southey, p. h. . 1774 1835 Thomas Campbell, p. . 1777 1844 Sidney Smith, e. pol. Wm. Wordsworth, p. J. Fennimore Cooper, n. Joanna Baillie, p. Thomas Moore, p. n. John Wilson, p. e. Washington Irving, n. h. 1783 T. B. Macaulay, h. p. . 1800 Abp. Richd. Whateley, ph. 1787 Henry lord Brougham, pol. h. 1778 Wm. M. Thackeray n. Thomas Carlyle, h. e. 1795 George Bancroft, h. 1800 Edwd. Bulwer Lytton, p. n. Benjamin Disraeli, n. 1805 Alfred Tennyson, p.. 1809 Charles Dickens, n. . 1812 Samuel Rogers, p. Henry Hallam, h. Thomas de Quincey, e. Anthony Trollope, n. 1791 1810 . 1812 . 1815 Of the art of etching on copper by means of aqua-fortis, Etching was practised by Albert Dürer. The Etching ENGRAVING ON WOOD, long known in China, began in The ENGRAVING ON SOFT STEEL, to be hardened afterwards, was introduced into England by Messrs. Perkins and Heath, of Philadelphia, 1819. MEZZOTINTO is said to have been discovered by col. von Siegen, who engraved a portrait of princess Amelia of Hesse in mezzotinto in 1643; it was improved by prince Rupert in 1648; and by sir Christopher Wren, about 1662. Aquatinta, by which a soft and beautiful effect is produced, was invented by the celebrated French artist, St. Non, about 1662; he communicated his invention to Le Prince. Barabbe of Paris was distinguished for his improvements in this kind of engraving, 1763. Chiar'-oscuro engraving originated with the Germans, and was first practised by Mair, one of whose prints bears date 1491 (see Zinc, &c.) ENLISTMENT. No persons enlisting as soldiers or sailors are to be sworn in before a magistrate in less than twenty-four hours after, and they are then at liberty to withdraw upon their return1859 ing the enlistment or bounty money, and 218. costs. Enlistment is now entirely voluntary. In 1847 the term of enlistment was limited to ten years for the 1863 infantry, and twelve years for the cavalry, artillery, and royal marines; and in 1867, to twelve years; see Army, 1867, and Foreign Enlistment. 1859 1868 1870 1871 d. dramatist; e. essayist; h. historian; m. miscellaneous; n. novelist; p. poet; t. theologian: pol. political; ph. philosopher. ENGRAVING on signets is mentioned Exod. xxviii. II (B.c. 1491). Engraving on plates and wood began about the middle of the 15th century. Engraving on glass was perfected by Bourdier, of Paris, 1799. The copyright to engravings has been protected by several statutes; among the principal are the acts 16 & 18 Geo. III. 1775 and 1777; and the acts 7 & 8 Vict. 6 Aug. 1844, and 15 Vict. 28 ENTAIL of estates began with the statute of Westminster, 1285. Subsequent legislation broke the entail in cases of treason (1534), when the estate is to revert to the crown, and of bankruptcy (1833 and 1849), when it is to be sold. ENTOMOLOGY, the science of insects, now mainly based upon the arrangement of Linnæus, 1739. Ray's" Methodus Insectorum," 1705; "Insectorum Historia," 1710. The Entomological Society of London was instituted in 1833. ENVELOPES for letters are mentioned by Swift, 1726. Stamped adhesive envelopes came into general use shortly after the establishment of the penny postal system, 10 Jan. 1840. Machinery for their manufacture was patented by Mr. George Wilson in 1844; and by Messrs. E. Hill and Warren De la Rue, 17 March, 1845. ENVOYS AT COURTS, in dignity below ambassadors, enjoy the protection, but not the ceremonies of ambassadors. Envoys extraordinary are of modern date. Wicquefort. The court of France denied to them the ceremony of being conducted to court in the royal carriages, 1639. EPACT (Greek, added) is the excess of the solar month above the lunar synodical month, 1 day, 11 hours, 15 minutes, 57 seconds, the lunar month being only 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes, 3 seconds; and the excess of the solar year above the lunar synodical year (nearly 11 days), the lunar year being 354 days. The number of the Gregorian epact for 1872, 20; 1873, 1; 1874, 12; 1875, 23; 1876, 4; 1877, 15. EPERNAY (N.E. France), seat of the trade in champagne, was taken from the League by Henry IV., 26 July, 1592, when marshal Armand Biron was killed. EPHESUS (in Asia Minor), a city founded by the Ionians about 1043 B.C. It was subdued by Cyrus in 544 B.C.; revolted from the Persians, 501 B.C. and was destroyed by an earthquake in A.D 17. See Diana, Temple of, and Seven Churches. Paul preached here A.D. 55, 56 (Acts xviii. xix.) His epistle to the Ephesians is dated A.D. 64. The third general council was held here in 431. After long investigation, Mr. Wood discovered the site of the temple of Diana in April, 1869; and about 60 tons of marble were shipped at Smyrna for the British museum, Jan. 1872, part of which arrived in the that the greatest good consists in peace of mind springing from virtue, as tending to prevent disquiet: but the name epicurean is frequently given to those who derive happiness from sensual plea sure. EPIDAURUS (Greece), celebrated for the temple of Asclepius, or Esculapius, god of medicine, and enriched by gifts from persons healed. The Romans sent an embassy to seek the help of the god during a pestilence, and his worship was introduced at Rome, 293 B.C. The temple was visited by Emilius Paulus, after his conquest of Macedonia, 167 B.C. EPIDEMIOLOGICAL SOCIETY, estabblished in 1850. EPIGRAMS derive their origin from the inscriptions placed by the ancients on tombs. Marcus Valerius Martialis, the Latin epigrammatist, who flourished about A.D. 83, is allowed to have excelled all others, ancient or modern. The following epigram on Christ's turning water into wine (John iii.) is an example:-"Vidit et erubuit lympha pudica Deum." "The modest water saw its God, and blushed." Crashaw (died 1650). EPIPHANY (appearance), a feast (Jan. 6), termed Twelfth Day, celebrates the manifestation of the Saviour, by the appearance of the star which conducted the Magi to the place where he was to be found; instituted 813. Whately. EPIRUS (Northern Greece). Its early history is very obscure. The first Pyrrhus (Neoptolemus) settled in Epirus, after the Trojan war, 1170 B.C., and was killed in Pyrrhus the Great reigns, 295; he takes Macedon the temple of Delphi . about B.C. 1165 from Demetrius, 290; compelled to yield to Lysimachus He invades Italy; defeats the Romans, 280; again, 279; subdues Sicily He invades Italy again, and is totally defeated by Curius Dentatus at Beneventum He unsuccessfully invades Sparta; enters Argos, and * Epirus annexed to the Ottoman empire EPISCOPACY, see Bishops. 287 278 275 273 272 220 167 A.D. 1466 1854 EPITAPHS were inscribed on tombs by the Egyptians, Jews, Greeks, and Romans. Mr. T. J. Pettigrew published a collection entitled "Chronicles of the Tombs," in 1857. EPITHALAMIUM, a nuptial song at mar1569 riage. Tisias, the lyric poet, is said to have been 1581 the first writer of one. He received the name of 1590-6 Stesichorus, from the alterations made by him in music and dancing, about 536 B.C. Bossuet. 1667 1728 1805 Walter Scott, "Lay of the Last Minstrel," &c. EPICUREAN PHILOSOPHY. Epicurus of Gargettus, near Athens, about 300 B.C., taught EPOCHA, a point of time made remarkable by some event, from which subsequent years are reckoned by historians and chronologers; see Eras. B.C. 4004 (1524-83), who taught that the church had no right to exclude any person from church ordinances, to inflict excommunication, &c. Persons who acknowledge the jurisdiction of the civil power in spiritual matters and the law of patronage, are now termed Erastians. B. C. A. D. 753 I 622 EPSOM (Surrey). The mineral springs were discovered in 1618. The races began about 1711, and have been held annually since 1730. EQUATOR or ECUADOR, a South American republic, formerly Quito and other provinces, part of Columbia, 1821; independent in 1831, when the Columbian republic was divided into three; the other two being Venezuela and New Granada. The population of Equator is about 1,040,400, of which 76,000 are in Quito, the capital. Presidents: general Franco, 21 Aug. 1859; defeated in battle by general Flores G. G. Moreno Aug. 1860 Jan. 1861 See Earthquakes, 1868. EQUESTRIAN ORDER in Rome began with Romulus, about 750 B.C.; see Knighthood. EQUINOX. When the sun in his progress passes through the equator in one of the equinoctial points, the day and night are equal all over the globe. This occurs twice in the year: about 21 March, the vernal equinox, and 22 Sept., the autumnal equinox. The equinoctial points move backwards about 50 seconds yearly, requiring 25,000 years to accomplish a complete revolution. This is called the precession of the equinoxes, which is said to have been observed by the ancient astrono mers. EQUITY, COURTS OF, are those of the lord chancellor, the vice-chancellors, and the master of the rolls, their office being to correct the operations of the literal text of the law, and supply its defects by reasonable construction not admissible in a court of law. The supreme court of session in Scotland combines the functions of law and equity. In 1865 equity powers were conferred on the county courts for cases respecting sums under 500l. ERAS. The principal are more fully noticed in their alphabetical order. Common Era (English Bible, Usher, &c.) . B. C. 4004 3761 1 Sept. 5508 Era of Constantinople The Romans reckoned from the founding of their 753 38 284 Era of Diocletian or Martyrs, began. The Mahometans began their era from the Hegira, or flight of their prophet from Mecca 16 July, 622 ERASURES. By order of sir John Romilly, master of the rolls, in 1855, no document corrected by erasure with the knife was to be henceforth received in his court. The errors must be corrected with the pen. It is so in the army courts. Orphans'-houses. ERFURT (Central Germany), was founded in 476; and its university established about 1390. Erfurt was ceded to Prussia in 1802. It capitulated to Murat, when 14,000 Prussian troops surrendered, 16 Oct. 1806. In this city Napoleon and Alexander met, and offered peace to England, 27 Sept. 1808. The French retreated to Erfurt from Leipsic, 18 Oct. 1813. A German parliament met here in March and April, 1850. ERICSSON'S CALORIC ENGINE, see Heat, note. ERIVAN (Armenia), in the 16th century the residence of the shahs of Persia, was taken by the Turks in 1553 and 1582; but recovered by Abbas the Great, 1604. After being several times captured, it was ceded to Persia, 1769. It was taken by Paskewitch in 1827, and annexed to Russia by treaty in Feb. 1828. by Theodosius II., 415; taken by the Seljuk Turks ERZEROUM (Asiatic Turkey), a city built in the 13th century, and by the Ottoman Turks in 1517. It was captured by the Russian general Paskewitch, June, 1829, but restored in 1830. It was almost totally destroyed by earthquakes, 2 June to 17 July, 1859. ESCHEATS. Land or other property that falls to a lord within his manor by forfeiture or death. The escheator observes the rights of the king in the county whereof he is escheator. Cowel. In London a court of escheats was held before the died intestate, for the king; such a court had not lord mayor to recover the property of a bastard who been held in the city for 150 years before-16 July, 1771. Phillips. ESCURIAL, properly ESCORIAL (25 miles N. W. of Madrid), the magnificent palace of the sovereigns of Spain, termed the eighth wonder of the world, was commenced by Philip II. in 1563, and completed in 1586, at a cost of about 10,000,000l. It is built in the form of a gridiron in honour of St. Lawrence, on whose day (10 Aug. 1557) the Spaniards gained the victory of St. Quentin. According to Francisco de los Santos the total length all its rooms and apartments is above 120 English miles. The Escurial comprises a church, mausoleum, monastery, palace, library, and museum. was struck by lightning and caught fire 11.30 p.m. I Oct. 1872, and was much damaged; but the grand library and other treasures were preserved. It ESPARTO, from the Latin spartum, stipa tenacissima of Linnæus, a Spanish grass used by Romans for whip-thongs, and now largely employed in paper-making. In 1856 about 50 tons, in 1870 above 100,000 tons, were imported into Britain. The price has risen from 4. to 10l. per ton. Living plants were received at Newcastle, July, See Creation, Anno Domini, Calendar. ESPIERRES (Belgium). At Pont-à-Chin, near this village, the French, under Pichegru, attacked the allied English and Austrian army (100,000 men), commanded by the duke of York, and were repulsed after a long and desperate engagement, losing the advantages gained by the victory at Turcoing, 22 May, 1794. ESPRIT, SAINT (or Holy Ghost), the title of an order of knighthood, founded by Henry III. of France in 1578, and abolished in 1791. ESQUIRES, among the Greeks and Romans, were armour-bearers to, or attendants on a knight. Blount. In England the king created esquires by putting about their necks the collars of SS, and bestowing upon them a pair of silver spurs. John de Kingston was created a squire by patent, 13 Richard II., 1389-90. "ESSAYS AND REVIEWS," by six clergymen and one layman of the church of England (the Rev. Drs. Fred. Temple and Rowland Williams, professor Baden Powell, H. B. Wilson, Mark Pattison, and professor B. Jowett, and Mr. C. W. Goodwin) were published in an 8vo vol. in March, 1860. The book did not excite much attention at first, but having been severely censured for heterodox views by nearly all the bishops and many of the clergy, it created much excitement in 1861, and was condemned by convocation 24 June, 1864. The ecclesiastical courts sentenced the revs. R. Williams and H. B. Wilson to suspension for one year, and costs, 15 Dec. 1862; but on appeal the sentence was reversed by the judicial committee of the privy council, 8 Feb. 1864. The most remarkable amongst the works put forth in opposition (in 1862) are the "Aids to Faith," edited by the bishop of Gloucester (W. Thomson, now abp. of York), and "Replies to Essays and Reviews," edited by the bishop of Oxford (S. Wilberforce). The election of Dr. Temple to the see of Exeter was much opposed on account of his essay in this collection; see Church of England, 1869. the ancestor of the Estes, dukes of Ferrara and Modena. ESTHONIA or REVEL, a Russian province, said to have been conquered by the Teutonic knights in the 12th century; after various changes it was ceded to Sweden by the treaty of Oliva, 3 May, 1660, and finally to Russia by the peace of Nystadt, 30 Aug. 1721, having been conquered by Peter in 1710. ETATS, see States. ETCHING, see Engraving. ETHER was known to the earliest chemists. Nitric ether was first discovered by Kunkel, in 1681; and muriatic ether, from the chloride of tin, by Courtanvaux, in 1759. Acetic ether was discovered by count Lauraguais, same year; and hydriotic ether was first prepared by Gay-Lussac. The discovery that by inhaling ether the patient is The phosphoric ether was obtained by M. Boullay. rendered unconscious of pain, is due to Dr. Charles T. Jackson, of Boston, U. S. Mr. Thomas Morton, of the same place, first introduced it into surgical practice, under Dr. Jackson's directions (1846); see " was Chloroform, and Amylene. The term "ether" applied to the transparent celestial space by the German astronomer Encke, about 1829, when studying the elements of Pons' comet, discovered in 1818. ETHICS (Greek term for Morals). The works of Plato, Aristotle, and Confucius, contain heathen systems; the New Testament is that of Christianity. Paley's Moral Philosophy appeared in 1785, and Whewell's Elements of Morality in 1845. ETHIOPIA. The name was applied anciently rather vaguely to countries the inhabitants of which had sun-burnt complexions, in Asia and Africa; but is now considered to apply properly to the modern Nubia, Sennaar, and Northern Abyssinia. Many pyramids exist at Napata, the capital of Meroe, the civilised part of ancient Ethiopia. The Ethiopians settle near Egypt B.C. 1615 941 765 to 715 ESSENES, an ascetic Jewish sect at the time Zerah, the Ethiopian, defeated by Asa of Christ. A dynasty of Ethiopian kings reigned over Egypt Tirhakah, king of Ethiopia, marches against Senna ESSEX, KINGDOM OF; see under Britain. EARLS OF ESSEX (from Nicolas.) Geoffrey de Mandeville, created earl of Essex by Matilda, was slain 14 Sept. 1144 Humphrey de Bohun, succeeded by right of his mother, Mary, sister of William, who died without heir 1189 Humphrey de Bohun, died without heir 1372 Thomas of Woodstock, son of Edward III. 1372; murdered 1397 Henry Bourchier (grandson) 1461 Henry Bourchier, grandson; died without heir From ESSLING, BATTLE OF, see Asperne. ESTE, HOUSE OF. Boniface, count of Lucca and duke of Tuscany, about 811, is said to have descended from Odoacer, king of Italy. Boniface sprang Albert Azzo II. marquis of Italy and lord of Este, born about 996, who marriedfirst, Cunegonda of the house of Guelf, by whom he had Guelf, duke of Bavaria, the ancestor of the house of Brunswick (see Bavaria and Brunswick); and secondly, Gersonda, by whom he had Fulk, ETHNOLOGY, a branch of Anthropology, is defined as the science "which determines the distinctive characters of the persistent modifications of mankind, their distribution, and the causes of the modifications and distribution." The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind, to each other is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographie Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr. Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical History of Mankind, 1841-7. The Ethnological Society, established in 1843, published transactions. On 17 Jan. 1871, it was amalgamated with the Anthropological Society, (which see) and named the Anthropological Institute. Dr. R. G. Latham's works, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 1851-2. Professor T. H. Huxley gave courses of lectures on Ethnology at the Royal Institution, London, May & June, 1866, 1867. ETHYL, a compound radicle, a colourless gas, with a slightly ethereal odour, a compound of carbon and hydrogen, first obtained in the free state by professor Edw. Frankland in 1849. Several of its compounds with metals take fire on exposure to the air. ETNA, MOUNT (Sicily). Here were the fabled forges of the Cyclops: and it is called by Pindar the pillar of heaven. Eruptions are mentioned by Diodorus Siculus as happening 1693 B.C., and Thucydides speaks of three eruptions as occurring 734, 477, and 425 B.C. There were eruptions, 125, 121, and 43 B.C. Livy. Eruptions, A. D. 40, 254, and 420. Carrera. One overwhelmed Catania, when 15,000 inhabitants Eruptions in 1766, 1787, 1809, 1811, and in May, 1169 Athens, and was its most valuable possession. It revolted in 445, but was soon subdued by Pericles. After the battle of Charonea, 338, it became subject Romans in 194; but was afterwards incorporated in to Macedon. It was made independent by the the province of Achaia. It now forms part of the kingdom of Greece. EUCHARIST, thanksgiving, an early name for the Lord's Supper; see Sacrament. EUCLID'S ELEMENTS. Euclid, a native of Alexandria, flourished about 300 B.C. The Elements are not wholly his; for many of the demonstrations were derived from Thales, Pythagoras, Eudoxus, and others; Euclid reduced them to order, and probably inserted many theorems of his own. The Elements were first printed at Basil by Simon Grynæus, in 1533. EUDIOMETER, an apparatus to ascertain the purity of atmospheric air, or the quantity of oxygen gas or vital air contained in it; one was 1852 invented by Dr. Priestley, in 1772. 18 Nov. 1832 Aug. & Sept. 1865 28 Nov. 1868 An eruption began on 1 Feb., and ceased in July' ETON COLLEGE (Buckinghamshire), founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and designed as a nursery to King's College, Cambridge. John Stanbery, confessor to Henry VI. (bishop of Bangor, in 1448), was nominated the first provost. One of the provosts, William Waynflete, (bishop of Winchester, 1447) greatly promoted the erection of the buildings. Besides about three hundred noblemen's and gentlemen's sons, there were seventy king's scholars on the foundation, who, when properly qualified, are elected, on the first Tuesday in August, to King's College, Cambridge, and are removed there when there are vacancies, according to seniority. In Dec. 1860 there were in all 820 scholars; see Cambridge. The establishment of the Montem is nearly coeval with the college. It consisted in the procession of the scholars, arrayed in fancy dresses, to Salt-hill once in three years; the donations collected on the road (sometimes as much as 8007.) were given to the senior or best scholar, their captain, for his support while studying at Cambridge. The montem was discontinued in 1847, and the regatta took its place. The college system was modified by the Public Schools act, 1868. ETRURIA (or TUSCIA, hence the modern name Tuscany), a province of Italy, whence the Romans, in a great measure, derived their laws customs, and superstitions. Herodotus asserts that the country was conquered by a colony of Lydians. The subjugation of this country forms an important part of early Roman history. It was most powerful under Porsena of Clusium, who attempted to reinstate the Tarquins, 506 B.C. Veii was taken by Camillus, 396 B.C. A truce between the Romans and Etrurians for forty years was concluded, 351 B.C. The latter and their allies were defeated at the Vadimonian lake, 310; with the Boii their allies, 283 B.C., and totally lost their independence about 265 B.C. The vases and other works of the Etruseans still remaining, show the degree of their civilisation. Napoleon I. established a kingdom of Etruria, 1801, and suppressed it 1807, see Tuscany.Etruria, Staffordshire the site of Josiah Wedgood's porcelain works, &c., was founded in 1771. EUBA, the largest island in the Ægean sea. Two of its cities, Chalcis and Eretria, were very important, till the former was subdued by Athens, 506 B.C. and the latter by the Persians, 490. After the Persian war, Euboea became wholly subject to EUNUCHS, first mentioned among the Egyptians and Assyrians, and said to have been first employed by Semiramis, queen of Assyria, about 2007 B.C. Eunuchs frequently attained to political power in the later Eastern empire. EUPATORIA (KOSLEFF), a sea-port on the west coast of the Crimea. After the allied French, English, and Turkish armies landed in the Crimea, 14 Sept. 1854, a detatchment under captain Brock occupied this place, which was afterwards reinforced by the Turks. It was attacked 17 Feb. 1855, by 40,000 Russians under Liprandi. The latter were repulsed with the loss of 500 men by the Turks, whose loss was only 50, among which, however, was Selim Pasha, the commander of the Egyptian contingent. EUPHRATES VALLEY RAILWAY, as a speedy means of reaching India, has been much advocated, especially by the late general Chesney, who published his survey of the Euphrates and Tigris in 1850. A parliamentary commission reported on it, Aug. 1872, when it was also considered at the meeting of the British association at Brighton. The construction would cost from five to ten millions sterling and its advantages are considered rather hypothetical by the best judges. EUPHUISM, an affected style of language, prevalent in the time of Elizabeth, arose from Euphues; the Anatomy of Wit," by John Lyly, published in 1581. EURASIAN PLAIN, the great central plain of Europe and Asia, so named by ethnologists (1865). EUROPE, the smallest of the three divisions of the old continent, really an appendage of Asia; area, nearly 3,800,000 square miles; population, 301,700,000 (1872). For the history, see Greece, Rome, and the modern kingdoms. EURYMEDON, a river in Pamphylia, near which Cimon, son of Miltiades, destroyed the fleet of the Persians at Cyprus, and defeated their land forces, 466 B.C. EUSTACE, ST. (Lower Canada). The rebels were defeated here, 14 Dec. 1837, and compelled to surrender their arms. Their chiefs fled. EUSTATIUS, ST., a West India island, settled by the Dutch, 1632; taken by the French in 1689; by the British in 1690; again by the British |