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ALL SAINTS' DAY (Nov. 1), or All-Hallows, a festival said to have been begun by pope Boniface IV. about 607, celebrated in the Pantheon at Rome, and established by pope Gregory IV. (about 830) for the commemoration of all those saints and martyrs in whose honour no particular day is assigned. The reformers of the English church, 1549, struck out of their calendar a great number of anniversaries, leaving only those which at their time were connected with popular feeling or tradition.

ALL SOULS' DAY (2 Nov.), a festival of the Roman Catholic church to commemorate the souls of the faithful, instituted, it is said, at Cluny about 993 or 1000.

ALL SOULS' COLLEGE, Oxford; see Oxford.

"ALL THE TALENTS" ADMINISTRATION, see Grenville Administrations.

ALLOBROGES, Gauls, defeated by Q. Fabius Maximus, near the confluence of the Rhone and Saone, 121 B.C.

ALMA, a river in the Crimea, near which was fought a great battle on 20 Sept. 1854. (See Russo-Turkish War and Crimea.) The English, French, and Turkish army (about 57,000 men) moved out of their first encampment in the Crimea on 19 Sept., and bivouacked for the night on the left bank of the Bulganac. The Russians (commanded by prince Menschikoff), mustering 40,000 infantry, had 180 field-pieces on the heights, and on the morning of 20 Sept. were joined by 6000 cavalry from Theodosia (or Kaffa). The English forces under lord Raglan, consisted of 26,000 men; the French of 24,000, under marshal St. Arnaud. At 12 o'clock the signal to advance was made; the river Alma was crossed, while prince Napoleon took possession of the village under the fire of the Russian batteries; and at 4, after a sanguinary fight, the allies were completely victorious. The enemy, utterly routed, threw away their arms and knap sacks in their flight, having lost about 5000 men, whom 900 were made prisoners, mostly wounded. The loss of the British was 26 officers and 327 men killed, and 73 officers and 1539 men wounded (chiefly from the 23rd, 7th, and 33rd regiments); that of the French, 3 officers and 233 men killed, and 54 officers and 1033 men wounded. Total loss of the allies about 3400.

of

ALMACK'S ASSEMBLY-ROOMS, Kingstreet, St. James's, London, at first very exclusive, were erected by a Scotchman named Almack, and opened 12 Feb. 1765. They are now termed Willis's rooms from the name of the present proprietors.

ALMANACS (from the Arabic al manah, to count). The Egyptians computed time by instruments; the Alexandrians had almanacs, and log calendars are ancient. In the British Museum and

universities are specimens of early almanacs. Michael Nostradamus the astrologer, wrote an almanac in the style of Merlin, 1556. Dufresnoy. Professor Augustus De Morgan's valuable "Book of Almanacs, with an index of reference, by which the almanac may be found for every year,' was published in March, 1851. Among the earlier and more remarkable almanacs were

John Somer's Calendar, written in Oxford
One in Lambeth Palace, written in
First printed one, published at Buda
"Shepheard's Kalendar," (first printed in England)
by Richard Pynson
Tybalt's Prognostications.
Almanac Liégeois.
Lilly's Ephemeris
Poor Robin's Almanac
British Merlin

Edinburgh Almanac

Connaissance des Temps (by Picard)
Moore's Almanac.
Lady's Diary

Season on the Seasons.
Gentleman's Diary

1380

1460 1472

. 1497 - 1533

1636

1644

1652

1658

1683

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1741

1767

1809

1826

1828

1832

1862-63

Nautical Almanac, begun by Dr. Neville Maskelyne
(materially improved, 1834)
Hone's Every-Day Book
British Imperial Kalendar

British Almanac and Companion
Anniversary Calendar, published by W. Kidd
Chambers' Book of Days.

The Stationers' company claimed the exclusive right of publishing almanacs in virtue of letters patent from James I., granting the privilege to them and the two Universities; but the monopoly was broken up by a decision of the Court of Common Pleas in 1775. A bill to renew the privilege was lost in 1779.

The Stamp Duty on English almanacs first imposed in 1710, was abolished in August, 1834; since when almanacs have become innumerable, being issued by tradesmen with their goods. Of Moore's (under the management of Henry Andrews, the able computer of the Nautical Ephemeris) at one time upwards of 430,000 copies were annually sold. Of Foreign Almanaes, the principal are the "Almanach de France," first published in 1699, and the "Almanach de Gotha," 1764.

He died in 1820.

ALMANZA (S. E. Spain). Here on 25 April (0. s. 14), 1707, the English, Dutch, and Portuguese forces under the earl of Galway, were totally defeated by the French and Spanish commanded by James Fitzjames, duke of Berwick (illegitimate son of James II.). Most of the English were killed or made prisoners, having been abandoned by the Portuguese at the first charge.

ALMEIDA (Portugal), a frontier town, captured by Massena, 27 Aug. 1810. The French blockaded by the English, 6 April, 1811. Almeida entered Spain, leaving a garrison at Almeida, retired from Portugal. was retaken by Wellington (11 May), and Massena

ALMENARA, a village N. E. Spain, where on 28 July, 1710, an English and German army defeated the Spanish army supporting Philip V., the grandson of Louis XIV. of France. Stanhope, the English general, killed the Spanish general, Amezaga, in single conflict; an act almost unexampled in modern warfare.

ALMOHADES, Mahometan partisans, followers of Mohammed ben Abdalla, surnamed ElMchedi, in Africa, about 1120. They subdued Morocco, 1145; entered Spain and took Seville, Cordova, and Granada, 1146-56; and founded a dynasty and ruled Spain till 1232, and Africa till 1278.

ALMONER, an office anciently allotted to a dignified clergyman who gave the first dish from the royal table to the poor, or an alms in money. By an ancient canon all bishops were required to keep almoners. The grand almoner of France was the highest ecclesiastical dignity in that kingdom before the revolution, 1789. Queen Victoria's almoner (Rev. Dr. Wellesley, dean of Windsor, appointed 28 May, 1870) or sub-almoner distributes the queen's gifts on Maundy Thursday (which see).

ALMORAVIDES, Mahometan partisans in Africa, rose about 1050; entered Spain by invitation, 1086; were overcome by the Almohades in 1147.

ALMSHOUSES for aged and infirm persons have been erected by many public companies and benevolent individuals, particularly since the abolition of religious houses at the Reformation in the 16th century. A list of them, with useful information, will be found in "Low's Charities of London," ed. 1862.

Cornelius Van Dun founded the Red Lion alms-
houses, Westminster.
Emmanuel College, Westminster, founded by Lady

Dacre

Whittington's almshouses founded in 1621, were rebuilt near Highgate-hill by the Mercers' company

The Fishmongers' company founded almishouses in 1618, and rebuilt them on Wandsworth com

mon

Haberdashers' almshouses, Hoxton, founded by Robert Aske

(covering II acres), was erected at Saltaire, near Shipley, Yorkshire, by Mr. (now sir) Titus Salt in 1852.

ALPHABET.

Athotes, son of Menes, is said to have been the author of hieroglyphics, and to have written thus the history of the Egyptians, 2122 B.C. Blair. But Josephus affirms that he had seen incriptions by Seth, the son of Adam: this is deemed fabulous.

The first letter of the Phoenician and Hebrew alphabet The Egyptian alphabet is ascribed to Memnon 1822 B.C. was aleph, called by the Greeks alpha, and abbreviated by the moderns to A. The Hebrew is supposed to be derived from the Phoenician.

Cadmus the founder of Cadmea, 1493 B.C., is said to have brought the Phoenician letters (fifteen in number) into Greece, viz..-A, B, г, ▲, I, K, A, M, N, O, II, P, 2, T. T. These letters were originally either Hebrew, Phoenician, or Assyrian characters, and changed gradually in form till they became the ground of the Roman letters, now used all over Europe. Palamedes of Argos invented the double characters, ✪, X, 4, 5, about 1224 B.C.; and Simonides added, Z, Y, H, Q, about 489 B.C. Arundelian Marbles. When the E was introduced is not precisely known. The Greek alphabet consisted of 16 letters till 399 (or 403) B.C., when the Ionic of 24 characters was introduced. The small letters are of later invention. The alphabets of the different nations contain the following number of letters :

English. French

Italian.

Spanish

1577

German.

Slavonic

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1826

1850

1692

Dame Owen's almshouses, Islington, built in 1613, (in gratitude for her escape from an arrow-shot), were rebuilt by the Brewers' company. Bancroft's almshouses, Mile End, were erected. The London almshouses, in commemoration of the passing of the Reform Bill, built at Brixton Numerous almshouses since erected for printers, bookbinders, &c.

1839 1735

1833

ALNEY, an island in the Severn, near Gloucester. Here a combat is asserted to have taken place between Edmund Ironside and Canute the Great, in sight of their armies, 1016. The latter was wounded, and proposed a division of the kingdom, the south part falling to Edmund. Edmund was murdered at Oxford shortly after, it is said by Edrie Streon; and Canute obtained possession of the whole kingdom.

ALNWICK (Saxon Ealnwic), on the river Alne in Northumberland, was given at the conquest to Ivo de Vesci. It has long belonged to the Percies. Malcolm, king of Scotland, besieged Alnwick, and ke and his sons were killed 13 Nov. 1093. It was taken by David I. in 1136, and attempted in July, 1174 by William the Lion, who was defeated and taken prisoner. It was burnt by king John in 1215, and by the Scots in 1448. Since 1854 the castle has been repaired and enlarged with great taste and at unsparing expense.

ALPACA (or Paco), a species of the S. American quadruped, the Llama, the soft hairy wool of which is now largely employed in the fabrication of cloths. It was introduced into this country about 1836, by the earl of Derby. An alpaca factory, &c.

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ALPHONSINE TABLES, astronomical tables, composed by Spanish and Arab astronomers, and collected in 1253 under the direction of Alphonso X. of Castile, surnamed the Wise, who is said to have expended upwards of 400,000 crowns in completing the work; he himself wrote the preface. The Spanish government ordered the work of Alphonso to be reprinted from the best MSS.; the publication begun in 1863.

ALPS, European mountains. Those between France and Italy were passed by Hannibal, 218 B.C., by the Romans, 154 B.C., and by Napoleon I. May, 1800. Roads over Mont Cenis and the Simplon, connecting France and Italy, were constructed by order of Napoleon, between 1801-6; see Simplon. The "Alpine Club," which consists of British travellers in the Alps, was founded in 1858, and published their first work, "Peaks, Passes, and Glaciers," 1859; see Matterhorn. Mont Cenis or Col de Fréjus Tunnel.—A tunnel, 74 miles long, through mount Cenis, connecting Savoy and Piedmont, was proposed by M. Medail, and, after long lying dormant, was discussed and plans drawn up in 1848. The execution was prevented by the war of 1849.

The work of excavation was begun by king Victor Emmanuel, 31 Aug. 1857.

The boring was at first effected by ordinary piercing machinery; steam power was employed in 1860; and Engineers-Grattoni, Grandis, and Sommeiller; the latterly compressed air. boring was completed, 25 Dec. 1870. The total cost was about 2,600,000l. As the Italians ad executed the work within the given time, the Frenc government bore the chief expense.

The first experimental trip was made in 40 minutes, 13 Sept., and the tunnel was solemnly inaugurated by the passage of 22 carriages in 20 minutes, 17 Sept. 1871; regular trains pass through, 16 Oct. 1871. side of the mountain (1872). About ten miles of railway are yet to make on the French

A railway for locomotives over mount Cenis was constructed upon Mr. Fell's plan in 1867 (see Railways), and opened for traffic, 15 June, 1868.

The overland mail first travels through the tunnel to

Brindisi, saving 24 hours, 5 Jan. 1872.

ALSACE, ELSASS (N. E. France), formerly part of the kingdom of Austrasia, now the departments of the Upper and Lower Rhine. It was incorporated with the German empire in the 10th century. A portion was restored to France, 1648, and the whole, including Strasburg, in 1697. Alsace was re-conquered by the Germans, Aug.-Sept. 1870; and annexed to their empire, May, 1871; by law, 9 June, 1871. The Alsatians were permitted to choose their nationality, before 30 Sept. 1872. Many emigrated into France, with much regret.-ALSACELORRAINE was constituted a province of the German empire, having been ceded by France by the treaty of peace concluded 10 May, 1871. It will be governed by imperial officers. The present dictatorial rule will cease 1 Jan. 1874.

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ALSATIA, a name given to the precinct of Whitefriars, London, is described in Scott's Fortunes of Nigel." Its privilege of sanctuary was abolished in 1697.

ALSEN (Denmark), besieged by the Prussians, and heroically defended, 26 June; taken, 29 June, 1864.

ALTAR. One was built by Noah, 2348 B.C. (Gen. viii. 20); others by Abraham, 1921 (Gen. xii. 8). Directions for making an altar are given, Exod. XX. 24, 1491 B.C. Altars were raised to Jupiter, in Greece, by Cecrops, 1556 B.C. He introduced among the Greeks the worship of the deities of Egypt. Herodotus. The term "altar" was applied to the Lord's table for the first three centuries after Christ (Heb. xiii. 10). Christian altars in churches were instituted by pope Sixtus I. A.D. 135; and were first consecrated by pope Sylvester. The Church of England terms the table on which the elements are placed an altar. Since the time of Elizabeth there has been much controversy on the subject, and the Puritans in the civil war destroyed many of the ancient stone altars, substituting wooden tables. In Jan. 1845 it was decided in the Arches Court that stone altars were not to be erected in English churches.

ALTENKIRCHEN (Prussia). The French, who had defeated the Austrians here, 4 June, 1796, were themselves defeated, and their general, Marceau killed, 19 Sept. following.

ALTER EGO (another or second I), a term applied to Spanish viceroys when exercising regal power; used at Naples when the crown prince was appointed vicar-general during an insurrection in July, 1820.

ALTONA (Holstein, N. Germany), acquired by the Danes, 1660, and made a city, 1664. It was occupied first by the German federal troops, 24 Dec. 1863, and then by the Prussians (the federal diet protesting) 12 Feb. 1864.

ALT-RANSTADT (Prussia), where the treaty of peace dictated by Charles XII. of Sweden, to Frederick Augustus of Poland, was signed 24 Sept. 1706, 0.8. Frederick, deposed in 1704, regained the throne of Poland after the defeat of Charles XII., in 1709. ALUM, a salt is said to have been first discovered at Roccha, in Syria, about 1300; it was found in Tuscany about 1470; its manufacture was brought to perfection in England by sir T. Chal

loner, who established large alum works near Whitby in 1608; it was discovered in Ireland in 1757; and dyeing; to harden tallow, to whiten bread, and in in Anglesey in 1790. Alum is used as a mordant in the paper manufacture.

ALUMBAGH, a palace with other buildings near Lucknow, Oude, India, taken during the mutiny from the rebels, 23 Sept. 1857, and heroically He defeated an attack of 30,000 sepoys on 12 Jan. defended by the British under sir James Outram. 1858, and of 20,000 on 21 Feb., and was relieved by sir Colin Campbell in March.

ALUMINIUM, a metal, the base of the earth alumina, which is combined with silica in clay, and which was shown to be a distinct earth by Marggraff in 1754, having been previously confounded with lime. Oerstedt in 1826 obtained the chloride of aluminium; and in 1827 the metal itself was got from it by F. Wöhler, but was long a scientific curiosity, the process being expensive. The mode of production was afterwards simplified by Bunsen and others, more especially by H. Ste.-Claire Deville, who in 1856 succeeded in procuring considerable quantities of this metal. It is very light (sp. g. 2.25), malleable, and sonorous; when pure does not rust, and is not acted on by sulphur or any acid except hydrochloric. In March, 1856, it was 37. the ounce; in June, 1857, 118. or 128., and it is now much cheaper (1873). The eagles of the French colours have been made of it, and many other ornamental and useful articles. Deville's work, aluminium manufactory was established at New"De l'Aluminium," was published in 1859. An castle in 1860, by Messrs. Bell. They obtain the metal from a French mineral, bauxite. Their aluminium bronze, an alloy of copper and aluminium, invented by Dr. John Percy, F.R.S., was made into watch cases, &c., by Messrs. Reid of Newcastle, in 1862.

AMADIS OF GAUL, a Spanish or Portuguese romance, stated to have been written about 1342 by Vasco de Lobeira. It was enlarged by De Montalvo, about 1485; and first printed (in Spanish) 1519; in French, 1540-56.

AMALEKITES (descendants of Amalek, grandson of Esau, brother of Jacob) attacked the Israelites, 1491 B.C., when perpetual war was denounced against them. They were subdued by Saul about 1079, by David, 1058 and 1056; and by the Simeonites about 715 B.C.

AMALFI, a city on the gulf of Salerno, Naples, in the 8th century become the seat of a republic, and flourished by its commerce till 1075, when it was taken by Roger Guiscord, and eventually incorporated with Naples. The Pisans, in their sack of the town in 1135, are said to have found a copy of the revival of the study of Roman law in Western the Pandects of Justinian, and thus to have induced Europe; the story is now doubted. Flavio Gioia, a native of Amalfi, is the reputed discoverer of the mariner's compass, about 1302.

AMAZON, West India mail steam ship, left Southampton on her first voyage, Friday, 2 Jan. 1852, and on Sunday morning, Jan. 4, was destroyed by fire at sea, about 110 miles W.S.W. of Scilly (ascribed to the spontaneous ignition of combustible matter placed near the engine-room). Out of 161 persons on board, 102 persons must have perished by fire or drowning. 21 persons were saved by the life-boat of the ship; 25 more were carried into Brest harbour by a Dutch vessel passing by; and

13 others were picked up in the bay of Biscay, also by a Dutch galliot. Eliot Warburton, a distinguished writer in general literature, was among those lost.

AMAZON, a river (S. America), was discovered by Pinzon, in 1500, and explored by Francisco Orellana, in 1540. Coming from Peru, he sailed down the Amazon to the Atlantic, and observing companies of women in arms on its bank, he called the country Amazonia, and gave the name of Amazon to the river, previously called Marañon.

AMAZONS. Three nations of Amazons have been mentioned-the Asiatic, Scythian, and African. They are said to have been the descendants of Scythians inhabiting Cappadocia, where their husbands, having made incursions, were all slain, being surprised in ambuscades by their enemies. Their widows formed a female state, and decreed that matrimony was a shameful servitude. Quintus Curtius. They were said to have been conquered by Theseus, about 1231 B.C. The Amazons were constantly employed in wars; and that they might throw the javelin with more force, their right breasts were burned off, whence their name from the Greek, a, no, mazos, breast. Others derive the name from maza, the moon, which they are supposed to have worshipped. About 330 B.C. their queen, Thalestris, visited Alexander the Great, whilst he was pursuing his conquests in Asia, with three hundred females in her train. Herodotus.

AMBASSADORS. Accredited agents, and representatives from one court to another, are referred to early ages. In most countries they have great privileges; and in England, they and their servants are secured against arrest. England usually has twenty-five ambassadors or envoys extraordinary, and about thirty-six chief consuls, resident at foreign courts, exclusive of inferior agents; the ambassadors and other chief agents from abroad at the court of London in 1865, were 47; in 1868, 43; in 1872, 42.

The Russian ambassador's being imprisoned for debt by a lace-merchant, 27 July, 1708, led to the passing the statute of 7 Anne, for the protection of ambassadors, 1708. Two men, convicted of arresting the servant of an ambassador, were sentenced to be conducted to the house of the ambassador, with a label on their breasts, to ask his pardon, and then one of them to be imprisoned three months, and the other fined, 12 May, 1780. The first ambassador from the United States of America

I

to England, John Adams, presented to the king, 1 June, 1785; the first from Great Britain to America was Mr. Hammond, in 1791.

AMBER, a carbonaceous mineral, principally found in the northern parts of Europe, of great repute in the world from the earliest time; esteemed as a medicine before the Christian era: Theophrastus wrote upon it; 300 B.C. Upwards of 150 tons of amber have been found in one year on the sands of the shore near Pillau. Phillips.

AMBLEF, near Cologne, Germany. Here Charles Martel defeated Chilperic II., and Ragenfroi, mayor of the Neustrians, 716.

AMBOISE (Central France). A conspiracy of the Huguenots against Francis II., Catherine de

* Much diversity of opinion still prevails among naturalists and chemists respecting the origin of amber. It is considered by Berzelius to have been a resin dissolved in volatile oil. It often contains delicately-formed insects. Sir D. Brewster concludes it to be indurated vegetable juice. When rubbed it becomes electrical, and from its Greek name, elektron, the term Electricity is derived.

Medicis, and the Guises, was suppressed at this place in Jan. 1560. On 19 March 1563, the Pacification of Amboise was published, granting toleration to the Huguenots. The civil war was however soon renewed.

AMBOYNA, chief of the Molucca isles, discovered about 1512 by the Portuguese, but not wholly occupied by them till 1580. It was taken by the Dutch in 1605. The English factors at this settlement were cruelly tortured and put to death, 17 Feb. 1623-4, by the Dutch, on an accusation of a conspiracy to expel them from the island, where the two nations jointly shared in the pepper trade of Java. Cromwell compelled the Dutch to give a sum of money to the descendants of the sufferers. Amboyna was seized by the English, 16 Feb. 1796, but was restored by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. It was again seized by the British, 17-19 Feb. 1810; and again restored at the peace of May, 1814.

&c.

AMBROSIAN CHANT, see Chant, Liturgy,

AMEN, an ancient Hebrew word meaning true, faithful, certain, is used in the Jewish and Christian assemblies, at the conclusion of prayer: see I Cor. xiv., 16 (A.D. 59). It is translated "*. verily" in the Gospels.

AMENDE HONORABLE, in France, in the 9th century, was a punishment inflicted on traitors and sacrilegious persons: the offender was delivered to the hangman: his shirt was stripped off, a rope put round his neck, and a taper in his hand; he was then led into court, and was obliged to beg pardon of God and the country. Death or banishment sometimes followed.

AMERCEMENT, in Law, a fine assessed for an offence done, or pecuniary punishment at the mercy of the court: thus differing from a fine directed and fixed by a statute. By Magna Charta, 1215, a freeman cannot be amerced for a small fault, but in proportion to the offence he has committed; the mode was determined by 9 Hen. III., 1225.

AMERICA, the great Western Continent, is about 9000 miles long, with an area of about 13,668,000 square miles. It is now believed to have been visited by the Norsemen or Vikings in the 10th and 11th centuries; but the modern discovery is due to the sagacity and courage of the Genoese navigator, Christopher Columbus.†

* The name is derived from Amerigo Vespucci, a Florentine merchant, who died in 1512. He accompanied Ojeda in his voyage on the eastern coast in 1498; and described the country in letters sent to his friends in Italy. He is charged with presumptuously inserting "Tierra de Amerigo" in his maps. Irving discusses the question in the Appendix to the Life of Columbus, but comes to no conclusion. Humboldt asserts that the name was given to the continent in the popular works of Waldseemüller, a German geographer, without the knowledge of Vespucci. To America we are indebted, among other things, for maize, the turkey, the potato, Peruvian bark, and tobacco.

+ Christophoro Columbo was born about 1445: first went to sea about 1460; settled at Lisbon in 1470, where he married Felipa, the daughter of Perestrello, an Italian navigator; whereby he obtained much geographical knowledge. He is said to have laid the plans of his voyage of discovery before the republic of Genoa, in 1485, and other powers, and finally before the court of Spain, where at length the queen Isabella became his patron. After undergoing much ingratitude and cruel persecution from his own followers and the Spanish court, he died on 20 May, 1506; and was buried with much pomp at Valladolid. His remains were transferred, in 1513, to Seville; in 1536 to San Domingo; and in Jan. 1796 to the Havanna,

Columbus sailed on his first expedition from Palos in Andalusia on Friday, with vessels supplied by the sovereigns of Spain 3 Aug. 1492 He lands on the Guanahani, one of the Bahamas; takes possession of it in the name of Ferdinand and Isabella of Castile, and names it San Salvador Friday, 12 Oct. 1492 He discovers Cuba, 28 Oct. ; and Hispaniola (now Hayti), where he builds a fort, La Navidad

6 Dec. He returns to Spain. 15 March, He sails from Cadiz on his second expedition, 25 Sept.; discovers the Caribbee Isles,-Dominica, 3 Nov.; Guadaloupe, 4 Nov.; Antigua, 10 Nov.; founds Isabella in Hispaniola, the first Christian city in the New World He discovers Jamaica, 3 May; and Evangelista (now Isle of Pines), 13 June; war with the natives of Hispaniola He visits the various isles, and explores their coasts Returns to Spain to meet the charges of his enemies

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The Dutch build Manhattan, or New Amsterdam (now New York) on the Hudson Settlement in New England begun by capt. Smith New Plymouth built by the English nonconformist exiles

1614

1620

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Dec. 1493

1494 1495-6 11 June, 1496

24 June, 1497

Cabot (sent out by Henry VII. of England) discovers Labrador on the coast of North America [he is erroneously said to have discovered Florida, and also Newfoundland, and to have named it Prima Vista] Columbus sails on his third voyage, 30 May: discovers Trinidad, 31 July; lands on Terra Firma, without knowing it to be the new continent, naming it Isla Santa. 1 Aug. 1498 Ojeda discovers Surinam, June; and the gulf of Venezuela

1499

Delaware settled by the Swedes and Dutch Massachusetts, by sir H. Boswell

New Jersey settled by the Dutch, 1614, and Swedes, 1627; granted to the duke of York, who sells it to lord Berkeley

New York captured by the English

South Carolina settled by the English.

1635

1664

1669

1682

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1699

Pennsylvania settled by William Penn, the celebrated Quaker

The Scotch settlement at Darien (1698-9) abandoned 1700
New Orleans built.

Georgia settled by general Oglethorpe
Kentucky, by colonel Boon

Canada conquered by the English, 1759-60; ceded to
Great Britain.

1717

. 1732

1754

1763

3 May, 1500

American war-declaration of independence by the
United States, 1776; recognised by Great Britain 1783
Louisiana ceded to Spain, 1763; transferred to
France, 1800; sold to the United States
Florida ceded to Great Britain, 1763; taken by
Spain, 1781; to whom it is ceded, 1783; ceded to
the United States

1803

Vicente Yañez Pinzon discovers Brazil, South Ame rica, 26 Jan, and the river Marañon (the Amazon); Cabral the Portuguese lands in Brazil (see Brazil) Gaspar Cortereal discovers Labrador Columbus is imprisoned in chains at San Domingo by Bobadilla, sent out to investigate into his conduct, May; conveyed to Spain, where he is honourably received 17 Dec. Columbus sails on his fourth voyage, 9 May; discovers various isles on the coast of Honduras, and explores the coast of the isthmus, July, &c.; discovers and names Porto Bello . 2 Nov. 1502 Negro slaves imported into Hispaniola Worried by the machinations of his enemies, he returns to Spain, 7 Nov. ; his friend, queen Isabella, dies

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1820

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AMERICA, BRITISH, see British America. AMERICA, CENTRAL, includes the republics of Guatemala, San Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica (which see). They declared their independence Sept. 21, 1821, and separated from the Mexican confederation, 21 July, 1823. The states made a treaty of union between themselves 21 March, 1847. There has been among them since much anarchy and bloodshed, aggravated greatly by the irruption of American filibusters under Kenny and Walker, 1854-5. In Jan. 1863, a war began between Guatemala (afterwards joined by Nicaragua) and San Salvador (afterwards supported by Honduras). The latter were defeated at Santa Rosa 16 June, and San Salvador was taken 26 Oct.; the president of San Salvador, Barrios, fled; and Carrera, the dictator of Guatemala, became predominant over the confederacy.-Population, 1869, about 2,700,000; see Nicaragua, Darien, and Panama.

AMERICA, RUSSIAN, sold to the United States for about 400,000l., March, 1867. See Alaska. AMERICA, SOUTH, see Brazil, Argentine, Peru, Paraguay, Uruguay, &c.

California

adjacent country

Chili conquered by Valdivia

1541

Orellana sails down the Amazon to the sea

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