1859 and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some more remains of Franklin's party were discovered. 1855 21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady Franklin and her friends, the government having declined to fit out another)-the Fox, screw steamer, under capt. (since sir F. L. M'Clintock, R.N. (see No. 11)-sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, 1857; returned 22 Sept. On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in lat. 70° 05' N., and long. 98° 23′ W.; that sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintock continued the search, and discovered skeletons and other relics. His Journal was published in Dec. 1859; and on 28 May, 1860, gold medals were given to him and to lady Franklin by the Royal Geographical Society. Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, circumstances that led him to hope that capt. Crozier and others were surviving. A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterlooplace, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is inscribed to" FRANKLIN the great navigator and his brave companions who sacrificed their lives in completing the discovery of the north west passage, A. D. 1847-8." Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now named Franklin Straits. FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of the North-western German tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with various success in the 5th century; see Gaul and France. FRATRICELLI (Little Brethren), a sect of the middle ages, originally strict Franciscan monks. Their numbers increased, and they were condemned by a papal bull in 1317; and suffered persecution; but were not extinct till the 16th century. They resembled the "Brethren of the Free Spirit." FRAUDS, STATUTE OF. 29 Charles II., c. 3, 1677. "An act for prevention of frauds and perjuryes." FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord Westbury), and is very stringent. FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. FRASER'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, Feb. 1830. FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia, N. America). On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On 11 Dec. Fredericksburg was bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a series of desperate unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works, defended by generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in the war. FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). Charles XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, while examining the works. His hand was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 11 Dec. 1718. FREE CHURCH (of England). The rev. H. Hampton, one of the curates of Islington, having been dismissed, a part of his congregation erected a temporary church. The bishop of London, after inquiry, refused to license it. On this the congregation declared itself to be the Free Church of England, March, 1859. Eventually, he left the neighbourhood, and re-entered the establishment. Secessions from the church of England took place in 1872 in consequence of the decision in favour of Mr. Bennett, 8 June, 1872; see Church of England. The establishment of a bishopric for a new Free Church at Southampton was proposed Jan. 1873. FREE CHURCH (of Scotland) was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the body from the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. Thos. Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, 1843. The difference arose on the question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patronage. The Free Church claims for the parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers of the new church, although 366,719. 148. 3d. had been subscribed. In 1853 there were 850 congregations. A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund amounted to 108,6387. from which was paid the sum of 1387. each to 700 ministers. FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National Association for Freedom of Public Worship, established in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system and revive the weekly offertory to defray the expenses of public worship. FREE COMPANIES AND LANCES, see Condottieri. FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in the Southern States of North America in March, 1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the support of martial law, these bureaus became very oppressive, and the act of congress making them permanent was vetoed by president Johnson in Feb. 1866. FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shillings per annum were not qualified to vote for members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429. Various acts have been passed for the regulation of the franchise at different periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828; act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived those of forty shillings of this privilege, passed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832, 1867, 1868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836. See Chandos Clause. FREE LABOUR REGISTRATION SOCIETY, established for the benefit of employers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition to trades' unions, about July, 1867. FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam Smith in his umphed in England when the corn laws were Wealth of Nations" (1776), triabolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Richard Cobden, who and termed "Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, was very instrumental in passing these measures, See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has 1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. begun in the United States. A reform league was formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the movement became active in New York in Nov., and has since continued. FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by some to the building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the re FREETHINKERS, professors of natural religion; see Deists. FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE SCIENCES was established by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief founders being MM. Balard, Claude Bernard, Delaunay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Würtz, and It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, others. 5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men were present. M. De Quatrefages, president. FRENCH CHURCH, see Church of France. FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated by the Romans. German was introduced by the Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the GalloRomanic dialect became divided into the Langue d'oc of the south and the Langue d'oil of the north. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates more to the modern French, and its development was almost completed when the Académie Française (established by Richelieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I., 1066. Law pleadings were changed from French to English in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stow. Thermidor . AUTUMN. Vintage month, 22 Sept. to 21 Oct. WINTER. 22 Oct. to 20 Nov. 21 Nov. to 20 Dec. . 21 Dec. to 19 Jan. 20 Jan. to 18 Feb. Wind month . 19 Feb. to 20 Mar. SPRING. Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April SUMMER. Harvest month, 19 June to 18 July. Prairial Died Messidor Fervidor, or Fructidor SANSCULOTIDES, 1544 Rabelais Ronsard. Montaigne Les Vertus. Le Génie Le Travail The Virtues Genius Labour 17 Sept. . 18 Sept. 19 Sept. Malherbe 1556 1628 L'Opinion Les Récompenses Pascal Molière Rochefoucault 1613 Opinion Rewards 20 Sept. . 21 Sept. FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from 1680 the British by the American general Winchester, 1684 22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the 1695 United States of America. It was retaken by the 1696 British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and 1639 1699 1627 the American commander and his troops were made 1706 prisoners. 1636 1711 1724 1741 1747 1755 1778 1651 1715 1661 1668 1689 1712 . 1717 1778 1783 1707 1788 1723 1799 FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the treaty of commerce between Great Britain and France, signed 23 Jan. 1860, at Paris, by lord Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5). The French assembly determined that on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat restricted, but the new French navigation law was relaxed. FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. See Stereochromy. FRETEVAL (Central France). Here Richard I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and captured his royal seal, archives, &c., 15 July, 1194. FRIARS (from the French frère, a brother); sce Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, and other orders. FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week; so called from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the supreme council of the Gods. See Good Friday. FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the French, commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 men; the French about 10,000 men. The peace Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions. of FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150 islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered by Tasman, in 1643; visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767; and by captain Cook, who named them on account of the friendly disposition of the natives, 1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious. FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, were subjected to slight control in 1793, and have been regulated by various enactments. Other acts were passed in 1855, 1858 and 1860. FRIENDS, see Quakers. FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform, 1792. FRIESLAND: EAST (N. Germany), the ancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the French empire, 1810; and awarded to Hanover in 1815. The English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect.-FRIESLAND, WEST, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of Holland about 936, and was one of the seven provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented. FRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin the Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a northwest passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait, 11 Aug. 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594. voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. FROGMORE, near Windsor, Berks. A house here, built by Nash, was the residence of queen Charlotte and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. Here is situate the mausoleum of the late prince consort. See Albert. FRONDE, CIVIL WARS OF THE, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during the government of queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the the court and the nobility, and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were erected in Paris. The Scheldt frozen so hard as to sustain loaded waggons The Rhine, Scheldt, and sea at Venice frozen. The rivers of Europe and the Zuyder Zee frozen; 1565 1594 1607 1622 1658 The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, split by the frost; most of the hollies were killed; the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick; and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683-Feb. 1684 "The people kept trades on the Thames as in a fair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily plied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames."-Entry in the memoranda of a Citizen. The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted; frost most terrible . 1740 One general throughout Europe; the Thames 1766 pass able opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the intermission of one day's thaw Intense frosts 1789 23 Jan. 1795 all Dec. 1796 1812 Severe frost in Russia Booths erected on the Thames; the winter very Jan. 1814 The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the atmosphere lose their breath Jan. to 2 Jan. 1849 24 Feb.; Very severe frost in London, 14 Very severe frost, 20 Dec. 1860; to 1855 5 Jan. 1861 1548 1522 .1736 1818 . 1540 100 Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830. FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). On 2 May, 1811, Massena crossed the Agueda with 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Massena was joined by Bessières with a body of the Imperial guard; and on 5 May, made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned by both parties-the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a cannon-shot from the stream. Napier. FÜESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the imperial crown and recovering his lost territories. FUGGER, an illustrious German family (the present head, prince Leopold Fugger Babenhausen, Fugger, a master weaver in Augsburg in 1370; since 28 May, 1836), derives its origin from John and its wealth by trade, and by money-lending to monarchs, especially the emperors. FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL passed by the American legislature in 1850. It imposed a fine of 1000 dollars and six months' imprisonment on any person harbouring fugitive slaves or aiding in their escape. This law was declared to be unconstitutional by the judges of the superior court on 3 Feb. 1855, was carried into effect with great difficulty, and was not received by Massachusetts. It was repealed 13 June, 1864; see Slavery in America. FULDA (W. Germany), the seat of an abbey, founded by St. Boniface, the apostle of Germany, 1540 in 744. It was made a bishopric in 1752, and a principality in 1803. Napoleon incorporated it with Frankfort in 1810; but in 1815 it was ceded to Hesse-Cassel. 1596 1705 . 1548 1540 1554 • 1554 FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Hardrada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of . 1752 England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morear, 20 Sept. 1066; and the people near York submitted to them; see Stanford-bridge. 1540 1520 1629 1754 1652 FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great fires to be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them to purify the air, and thus to have stopped the 1595 plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 B.C. . 1730 1562 1568 1525 1522 FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund. FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and 1548 Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 1573 2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first 1796 who pronounced a funeral oration, according to 1696 Herodotus, 580 B.C. The Romans pronounced 1530 harangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus; and . 1724 FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The it is observed by Cicero that Julius Cæsar did the like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia.Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Romans included horse-races, dramatic representations, processions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, A.D. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1793. PUBLIC FUNERALS voted by parliament :Duke of Rutland, in Ireland Lord Nelson (see Nelson) Wm. Pitt Richard Brinsley Sheridan Chas. Jas. Fox George Cauning Duke of Wellington 9 Jan. 1806 lord Lake defeated the Maharatta chief Holkar, and about 60,000 cavalry, himself losing 2 killed and about 20 wounded. FURS were worn by Henry I. about 1125. Edward III. enacted that all persons who could not spend 100l. a year should be prohibited this species of finery, 28 March, 1336-7. FUSILIERS. Foot soldiers, formerly armed 17 Nov. 1787 with fusees with slings to sling them. The 7th regiment (or Royal English Fusiliers) was raised, 11 June, 1685; the 21st (or Royal North British), 13 July, 1816 23 Sept. 1679; the 23rd (or Royal Welsh), 17 Marchi, 1688. Grose. 22 Feb. 10 Oct. 16 Aug. 1827 18 Nov. 1852 Viscount Palmerston (at her majesty's request), 27 Oct. 1865 FURRUCKABAD (N. India), a province acquired by the East India company, in June, 1802. Near the capital of the same name, 17 Nov. 1804, FUTTEHGHUR (India). Here Nana Sahib massacred both the English defenders of the fort and their Sepoy assailants, July, 1857; and here the Sepoy rebels were defeated by sir Colin Campbell, 2 Jan. 1858. GABELLE (from Gabe, a gift), a term applied to various taxes, but afterwards restricted to the duty upon salt. first imposed by Philip the Fair on the French in 1286. Duruy. Our Edward III., termed Philip of Valois, who exacted the tax rigorously, the author of the Salic law (from sal, salt), 1340. The assessments were unequal, being very heavy in some provinces and light in others; owing to exemptions purchased from the sovereigns. The tax produced 38 millions of francs in the reign of Louis XVI. It was a grievous burden, and tended to hasten the revolution, during which it was abolished (1790). GAELIC, the northern branch of the Celtic languages, Irish, Erse or Highland Scottish, and Manx. The "Dean of Lismore's book" written 1511-51) contains Gaelic poetry; specimens were published, with translations, in 1862, by rev. T. M'Lachlan. G. GAETA (the ancient Cajeta), a fortified Neapolitan seaport, has undergone several remarkable sieges. It was taken by the French, 4 Jan. 1799; by the English, 31 Oct. 1799; by the French, 18 July, 1806; and by the Austrians in 1815 and 1821. Here pope Pius IX. took refuge, 24 Nov. 1848, and resided more than a year. Here also Francis II. of Naples, with his queen and court, fled, when Garibaldi entered Naples, 7 Sept. 1860; and here he remained till the city was taken by the Sardinian general Cialdini, 13 Feb. 1861, after a severe siege, uselessly prolonged by a French fleet remaining in the harbour. Cialdini was created duke of Gaeta. GAGGING BILL, properly so called, meant to protect the king and government from the harangues of seditious meetings, was enacted 8 Dec. 1795, when the popular mind was much excited. In Dec. 1819, soon after the Manchester affray, an act was passed for restraining public meetings and cheap periodical publications; it was popularly called "a gagging bill." Statutes coercing popular assemblies, particularly in Ireland, have been also so designated. GAIETY THEATRE, Strand, opened 21 Dec. 1868, Mr. John Hollingshead, manager. | GALATZ (Moravia). The preliminaries of peace between Russia and Turkey signed here, II Aug. 1791, led to the treaty of Jassy, 9 Jan. 1792. The site of several conflicts, in which the Russians defeated the Turks, Nov. 1769; 10 May, 1828. GALAPAGOS, islands ceded to the United States by Ecuador, 3 Nov. 1854, the British, French, and other powers protesting against it. GALATIA, a province of Asia Minor. In the 3rd century B.c. the Gauls under Brennus invaded Greece, crossed the Hellespont, and conquered the Troas, 278; were checked by Attalus I. in a battle about 241; and then settled in what was called afterwards Gallogræcia and Galatia. The country was ravaged by Cneius Manlius, 189 B.C., and was finally annexed to the Roman empire, 25 B.C., on the death of the king Amyntas. Paul's Epistle to the Galatians was probably written A.D. 58. GALICIA, a province, N.W. Spain, was conquered by D. Junius Brutus, 136 B.C. and by the Vandals A.D. 419; and was subdued by successive invaders. In 1065, on the death of Ferdinand I. king of Castile and Leon, when his dominions were divided, his son Garcia became king of Galicia. Ruling tyranically, he was expelled by his brother Sancho; returned at his death in 1072; was again expelled by his brother Alfonso, 1073; and died in prison in 1091. Alfonso, son of Urraca, queen of Castile, was made king of Galicia by her in 1109. He defended his mother, a dissolute woman, against her husband, Alfonso VII., and at her death in 1126, acquired Castile, and once more re-united the East Galicia was kingdoms.-GALICIA, Poland. acquired by the emperor of Germany at the partition in 1772; and West Galicia at that of 1795. The latter was ceded to the grand duchy of Warsaw in 1809; but recovered by Austria in 1815. The appointment of count Goluchowski, a Pole, as governor, in Oct. 1866, gave much satisfaction to the Poles, about 2,000,000 in this province; see Poland, note. GALLERIES, see National, Louvre, and Versailles. |