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been rendered colourless, equalled a diamond in lustre, valued at 18,000 gold crowns. De Boot.Amethysts discovered at Kerry, in Ireland, in 1775.

AMIENS, a city in Picardy (N. France): the cathedral was built in 1220. It was taken by the Spanish, 11 March, and retaken by the French, 25 Sept. 1597. The preliminary articles of the peace between Great Britain, Holland, France, and Spain, were signed in London by lord Hawkesbury and M. Otto, on the part of England and France, 1 Oct. 1801; and the definitive treaty was subscribed at Amiens, on 27 March, 1802, by the marquis of Cornwallis for England, Joseph Bonaparte for France, Azara for Spain, and Schimmelpenninck for Holland. War was declared again in 1803.After a conflict, in which the French were defeated, 27 Nov. 1870, the German general, Von Gaben entered Amiens, 28 Nov.

AMMERGAU PASSION PLAY, see Drama. AMMONIA, the volatile alkali, mainly produced by the decomposition of organic substances. Its name is ascribed to its having been procured from heated camels' dung near the temple of Jupiter Ammon in Libya. The discovery of its being a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen is ascribed to Joseph Priestley in 1774. By the recent labours of chemists both the oxide of the hypothetical metal ammonium, and ammonium amalgam, have been formed; and specimens of each were shown at the Royal Institution in 1856 by Dr. A. W. Hofmann, who has done very much for the chemical history of ammonia.

AMMONITES, descended from Ben-Ammi, the son of Lot (1897 B.C.), invaded Canaan and made the Israelites tributaries, but were defeated by Jephthah, 1143 B.C. They again invaded Canaan, intending to put out the right eye of all they subdued; but Saul overthrew them, 1095 B.C. They were afterwards many times vanquished; and Antiochus the Great took Rabbah their capital, and destroyed the walls, 198 B.C. Josephus.

AMNESTY (a general pardon after political disturbances, &c.) was granted by Thrasy bulus, the Athenian patriot, after expelling the thirty tyrants, 403 B.C. Acts of amnesty were passed after the civil war in 1651, and after the two rebellions in England in 1715 and 1745.-After his victorious campaign in Italy, Napoleon III. of France granted an amnesty to all political offenders, 17 Aug. 1859. An amnesty, with certain exemptions, was granted to the vanquished southern states of North America by president Johnson, 29 May, 1865. An amnesty for political offences was granted by the emperor of Austria at his coronation as king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867; a rather sweeping amnesty bill was passed in the United States regarding the rebellion, 10 April, 1871.

AMOY, see China, 1853-5.

AMPHICTYONIC COUNCIL, asserted traditionally to have been established at Thermopyla by Amphictyon, for the management of all affairs relative to Greece. This celebrated council, composed of twelve of the wisest and most virtuous men of various cities of Greece, began 1498 [1113, Clinton] B.C., and existed 31 B.C. Its immediate office was to attend to the temples and oracles of Delphi. Its calling on the Greek States to punish the Phocians for plundering Delphi caused the Sacred wars, 595-586, and 356-346.

AMPHION, a British frigate, of 38 guns, blown up while riding at anchor in Plymouth Sound, and the whole of her crew then on board, consisting of more than two hundred and fifty persons, officers and men, perished, 22 Sept. 1796.

AMPHIPOLIS, Macedon (N. Greece). A city founded here by the Athenians, 437 B.C.; was seized by Brasidas the Spartan, 424; both he and the Athenian general, Cleon, were killed in a fruitless attempt at the capture of the city by the Athenians, 422.

AMPHITHEATRES, round or oval buildings, said to have been first constructed by Curio, 76 B.C.,

and by Julius Cæsar 46 B.C. In the Roman amphitheatres, the people witnessed the combats of gladiators with wild beasts, &c. They were generally built of wood, but Statilius Taurus made one of stone, under Augustus Cæsar; see Coliseum. The amphitheatre of Vespasian (capable of holding 87,000 persons) was built between A.D. 70 and 80; and is said to have been a fortress in 1312. The amphitheatre at Verona was next in size, and then that of Nismes.

AMPHITRITE, THE SHIP, see Wrecks, 30 Aug. 1833.

AMPUTATION, in surgery was greatly aided by the invention of the tourniquet by Morel, a French surgeon in 1674, and of the flap-method by Lowdham of Exeter in 1679.

AMSTERDAM (Holland). The castle of Amstel was commenced in 1100; the building of the city in 1203. Its commerce was greatly increased by the decay of that of Antwerp after 1609. The exchange was built in 1634; and the noble stadthouse in 1648; the latter cost three millions of guilders, then a large sum. It was built upon 13,659 piles. Amsterdam surrendered to the king of Prussia, when that prince invaded Holland, in favour of the stadtholder, in 1787. The French were admitted without resistance, 18 Jan. 1795The Dutch government was restored in Dec. 1813. A crystal palace for an industrial exhibition was opened by prince Frederick of the Netherlands 16 Aug. 1864.

AMULETS OR CHARMS, employed from the earliest times. Amulets were made of the wood of the true cross, about 328.

AMYL, a chemical alcohol radical (first isolated by professor Edward Frankland in 1849.)

AMYLENE, a colourless, very mobile liquid, first procured by M. Balard of Paris in 1844, by distilling fusel oil (potato-spirit) with chloride of zinc. The vapour was employed instead of chloroform first by Dr. Snow in 1856. It has since been tried in many hospitals here and in France. The odour is more unpleasant than chloroform, and more vapour must be used.

ANABAPTISTS, those who baptize at full age, and reject infant baptism; see Baptists. The name was first given to Thomas Münzer, Storck, and other fanatics who preached in Saxony in 1521, and excited a rebellion of the lower orders in Germany, which was quelled with bloodshed in 1525. A similar insurrection took place in Westphalia, headed by Matthias 1533, and, after his assassination, by John Boccold of Leyden, who was crowned "king of Sion" in Münster, 24 June, 1534. Münster was taken in June, 1535; and John was executed

13 Feb. 1536. Several anabaptists were executed in England in 1535, 1538, and 1540. On 6 Jan. 1661, about 80 anabaptists in London appeared in arms, headed by their preacher, Thomas Venner, a winecooper. They fought desperately, and killed many of the soldiers brought against them. Their leader and sixteen others were executed, 19 and 21 Jan. Annals of England.

ANACHORETS, see Monachism.

ANACREONTIC VERSE, of the bacchanalian strain, named after Anacreon of Teos, the Greek lyric poet, whose odes are much prized. He is said to have been choked by a grape-stone in his eighty-fifth year, about 514 B.C. His odes have been frequently translated; Thomas Moore's version was published in 1800.

ANESTHETICS, see Opium, Chloroform, Ether, Amylene, Kerosolene, Nitrous acid. Intense cold has been also employed in deadening pain.

ANADOLIA (Asia Minor), comprises the ancient Lycia, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia and Phrygia (which see)."

ANAGRAMS, formed by the transposition of the letters of a word or sentence (as army from Mary), are said to have been made by ancient Jews, Greeks, &c. On the question put by Pilate to Our Saviour, "Quid est veritas?" (what is truth?) we have the anagram, "Est vir qui adest' ("The man who is here"); from "Horatio Nelson," "Honor est a Nilo" (Honour from the Nile"). ANAM, see Annam.

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ANATHEMA, the sentence of excommunication (1 Cor. xvi. 22), used by the early churches, 365; see Excommunication. Pope Pius IX. propounded a series of anathemas, Feb. 1870.

ANATOMY (Greek, cutting up). The human body was studied by Aristotle about 350 B.C., and became a branch of medical education under Hippocrates, about 420 B.C. Erasistratus and Herophilus first dissected the human form, having been previously confined to animals: it is said that they practised upon the bodies of living criminals, about 300 and 293 B.C. Galen, who died A.D. 193, was a great anatomist. In England, the schools were long supplied with bodies unlawfully exhumed from graves; and until 1832, the bodies of executed murderers were ordered for dissection. Pope Boniface VIII. forbade the dissection of dead bodies, 1297.-The first anatomical plates, designed by Titian, were employed by Vesalius, about 1538. Leonardo da Vinci, Raphael, and Michael Angelo, studied anatomy. The great discoveries of Harvey were made in 1616. William and John Hunter *By 32 Hen. VIII. c. 42 (1540), surgeons were granted

four bodies of executed malefactors for "anathomyes,' which privilege was extended in following reigns: but in consequence of the crimes committed by resurrectionmen in order to supply the surgical schools (robbing churchyards and even committing murder, see Burking), a new statute was passed in 1832, which abated the ignominy of dissection by prohibiting that of executed murderers, and made provision for the wants of surgeons by permitting, under certain regulations, the dissection of persons dying in workhouses, &c. The act also appointed inspectors of anatomy, regulated the schools, and required persons practising anatomy to obtain a licence. It repealed the clauses of the act of 1828, which directed the dissection of the body of an executed

murderer.

were great anatomists: William died 1783, and John, 1793. Quain's and Wilson's large anatomical plates were published 1842, and Bourgery's great work by Jacob, 1830-55. Comparative anatomy has been treated systematically in the present century by Cuvier, Owen, Müller, Huxley, and others.The anatomy of plants has been studied since 1680; see Botany.

ANCHORITES, see Monachism.

ANCHORS were invented by the Tuscans. Pliny. The second tooth, or fluke, was added by Anacharsis the Scythian (592 B.C.). Strabo. Anchors said to have been forged in England A.D. 578. The Admiralty anchor was introduced about 1841. Improved anchors were made by Pering and Rodgers about 1828; by Porter, 1838; by Costell, sons. Trotman's is attached to the Queen's yacht 1848; by Trotman, 1853; and by several other perthe Fairy. The anchors of the Great Eastern are of enormous size. Acts for the proving and sale of chain cables and anchors were passed in 1864 and 1871.

ANCIENT HISTORY commences in the Holy Scriptures 4004 B.C. and in the history of Herodotus about 1687 B.C., and is considered to end with the destruction of the Roman empire in Italy, (A.D. 622), or with Charlemagne (768). A.D. 476. Modern history begins with Mahomet

ANCIENTS, see Councils, French.

ANCONA, an ancient Roman port on the Adriatic. The mole was built by Trajan, 107. After many changes of rulers (Lombards, Saracens, Greeks, and Germans) Ancona was annexed to the papal states in 1532. It was taken by the French, 1797; retaken by the Austrians, 1799; reoccupied by the French, 1801; restored to the pope, 1802. It was occupied by the French in 1832; evacuated in 1838, and after an insurrection was bombarded and captured by the Austrians, June 18, 1849. The Papal government in Sept. 1860. Lamoricière, the Marches (comprising this city) rebelled against the papal general, fled to Ancona after his defeat at Castelfidardo, but was compelled to surrender himself, the city, and the garrison, on 29 Sept. The king of Sardinia entered soon after.

ANCYRA, now Angora or Engour, a town in ancient Galatia, Asia Minor. Councils were held here 314, 358, 375. It was taken by the Persians, 616; by the Saracens, 1085; by the crusaders, 1102. Near this city, on 28 July, 1402, Timour or Tamerlane defeated and took prisoner the sultan Bajazet, and is said to have conveyed him to Samarcand in

a cage.

ANDALUSIA (S. Spain), a province once part of the ancient Lusitania and Batica. The name is a corruption of Vandalitia, it having been held by the Vandals from 419 to 429, when it was acquired by the Visigoths. The latter were expelled by the Moors in 711, who established the kingdom of Cordova, and retained it till 1236.

ANDAMAN ISLANDS, in the Bay of Bengal. The inhabitants are dwarfs, and in the lowest state of barbarism. At Port Blair, on South Island, made a penal settlement for the Sepoy rebels in 1858, the earl of Mayo, viceroy of India, was assassinated by Shere Alee, a convict, 8 Feb. 1872, when going on board the Glasgow.

ANDERNACH, Rhenish Prussia, once an imperial city. Near here, the emperor Charles I., while attempting to deprive his nephews of their

inheritance, was totally defeated by one of them, Louis of Saxony, 8 Oct. 876.

ANDORRA, a small republic in the Pyrenees, bearing the title of "the valleys and sovereignties of Andorra," was made independent by Charlemagne about 778, certain_rights being reserved to the bishop of Urgel. The feudal sovereignty, which long appertained to the counts of Foix, reverted to the French king, Henry IV., in 1589; but was given up in 1790. On 27 March, 1806, an imperial decree restored the old relations between Andorra and France. The republic is now governed by a council elected for four years; but the magistrates are appointed alternately by the French government and the Spanish bishop of Urgel, to both of whom tribute is paid. The population is about

12,000.

ANDRÉ'S EXECUTION, see United States, 1780.

ANDREW, ST., said to have been martyred by crucifixion, 30 Nov. 69, at Patræ, in Achaia. His festival was instituted about 359. The Royal Society's anniversary is kept on St. Andrew's day. The Russian order of St. Andrew was instituted in 1698 by Peter I. For the British order, see Thistle.

ANDREW'S, St. (E. Scotland), made a royal burgh in 1140. Here Robert Bruce held his first parliament in 1309; and here Wishart was burnt by archbishop Beaton, 1545, who himself was murdered here in 1546. The university was founded in 1411 by bishop Wardlaw. The cathedral (built 1159-1318), was destroyed by a mob, excited by a sermon of John Knox, June, 1559. Sir R. Sibbald's list of the bishops commences with Killach, 872. The see became archiepiscopal in 1470, ceased soon after 1689; was re-instituted in 1844; see Bishops.

ANDRUSSOV, PEACE OF (30 Jan, 1667), between Russia and Poland, for 13 years, with mutual concessions, although the latter had been generally

victorious.

ANEMOMETER (Greek, anemos, the wind), a measurer of the strength and velocity of the wind, was invented by Wolfius, in 1709. The extreme velocity was found by Dr. Lind to be 93 miles per hour. Osler's and Whewell's anemometers were highly approved of in 1844. "Robinson's anemo

meter is the simplest and best," Buchan, 1867.

ANEROID, see Barometer.

ANGEL, a gold coin, impressed with an angel, weighing four pennyweights, valued at 6s. 8d. in the reign of Henry VI., and at 108. in the reign of Elizabeth, 1562. The Angelot, a gold coin, value half an angel, was struck at Paris when held by the English, 1431. Wood.

ANGELIC KNIGHTS OF ST. GEORGE.

This order is said to have been instituted by Constantine who died 337. The Angelici were instituted by the emperor Angelus Comnenus, 1191.-The Angelice, an order of nuns, was founded at Milan by Louisa Torelli, 1534.

ANGERS (W. Central France), the Roman Juliomagus, possessing an amphitheatre; afterwards Andegarum, the capital of Anjou (which see). It was frequently besieged, and many councils were held in it between 453 and 1448, relating to ecclesisiastical discipline.

ANGERSTEIN GALLERY, see National

Gallery.

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Oppian wrote his "Halieutics," a Greek epic poem on
Fishes and Fishing, about A.D. 198.
In the book on Hawkynge and Huntynge," by Juliana
Berners or Barnes, prioress of Sopwith, near St.
Albans, "emprinted at Westmestre by Wynkyn de
Worde," in 1496, is "The treatise of fysshyng with an
Angle."

Izaac Walton's "Compleat Angler" was first published in 1653.

ANGLO-AMERICAN ASSOCIATION, to cultivate more cordial relations between Great Britain and the United States, established 25 Jan. 1871.

ANGLO-SAXONS or ANGLES, derive their whose population (called Angli by Tacitus) joined name from a village near Sleswick, called Anglen, the first Saxon freebooters. East Anglia was a kingdom of the heptarchy, founded by the Angles, one of whose chiefs, Uffa, assumed the title of king, 571; the kingdom ceased in 792. See Britain. Saxon about 680; a translation of the gospels was Cadmon paraphrased part of the Bible in Anglomade by abbot Egbert, of Iona, 721; of Boethius, Orosius, &c., by Alfred, 888. The Anglo-Saxon laws were printed by order of government, in 1840.

ANGOLA (S. W. Africa), settled by the Portuguese soon after the discovery, by Diego Cam, about 1484. Loando, their capital, was built 1578. ANGORA, see Ancyra.

ANGOULÈME, (the Roman Iculisma,) capital of the province of Angoumois, Central France, W., was a bishopric in 200. Angoulême became an independent country about 856; was united to the French crown in 1308; was held by the English, 1360 to 1372, in the reign of Edward III. The count of Angoulême became king of France as Francis I. in 1515.

ANGRIA'S FORT, see India, 1756.

ANGUILLA, Snake Island, West Indies, setValuable deposits of tled by the British, 1666. phosphate of lime were found here in 1859.

ANHALT, HOUSE OF, in Germany, deduces the Thuringians in the sixth century. In 1606, its origin from Berenthobaldus, who made war upon Joachim Ernest, by the eldest, John-George. Thus the principality was divided among the four sons of began the four branches-Anhalt-Dessau (descended from John-George); Zerbst, extinct, 1793; Plotsgau or Coethen, extinct, 1847; and Bernburg, extinct, 1863; (the last duke died without issue, 22 Aug. 1863.) The princes of Anhalt became dukes in 1809. Anhalt is an hereditary constitutional monarchy; population in 1871, 203,354. Anhalt joined the North German Confederation, 18 Aug. 1866.

Leopold (born Oct. 1, 1794), became duke of AnhaltDessau, 9 Aug. 1817, and of Anhalt-Bernburg, 30 Aug. 1863; died 22 March, 1871.

Frederic, duke of Anhalt; born 29 April, 1831.
Heir: Leopold, born 18 July, 1855.

ANHOLT, ISLAND OF, Denmark, was taken possession of by England, 18 May, 1809, in the French war, on account of Danish cruisers injuring British commerce. The Danes made a fruitless attempt to regain it, 27 March, 1811.

ANILINE, an oily alkaline body, discovered in 1826 by Unverdorben among the products of distillation of indigo. From benzole (which see) Bechamp, in 1856, obtained it by successive treatment with concentrated nitric acid and reducing agents. The scientific relations of aniline have been carefully examined by several chemists, especially by Dr. A. W. Hofmann. It was long known to yield a series of coloured compounds, but it was not till 1856 that Mr. W. A. Perkin showed how a violet oxidation-product (mauve) could be applied in dyeing. Aniline is now manufactured on a large scale for the commercial production of "Mauve" and "Magenta" (rosaniline) (which see), and several other colouring matters, (aniline blue, 1861; violet, 1863; "night" green, &c. After much litigation, the patent of Simpson, Maule, and Nicholson, for aniline colours, was annulled by the house of lords, 27 July, 1866.

ANIMALCULES, Leeuwenhoek's remarkable microscopical discoveries were published in his "Arcana Naturæ," at Leyden, 1696. The great works of Ehrenberg of Berlin on the Infusorial Animalculæ, &c., were issued 1838-57. Pritchard's Infusoria, ed. 1861, is a valuable summary of our present knowledge of animalcules.

ANIMAL MAGNETISM (to cure diseases by sympathetic affection) was introduced by father Hehl, a Jesuit, at Vienna, about 1774, and had its dupes in France and England about 1788-89. Hehl for a short time associated with Mesmer, but they soon quarrelled.-Mr. Perkins (who died in 1799) invented "Metallic Tractors for collecting, condensing, and applying animal magnetism;" but Drs. Falconer and Haygarth put an end to his pretensions by performing many wonders with a pair of wooden tractors. Brande. See Mesmerism.

ANIMALS, CRUELTY TO. Mr. Martin, M.P., as a senator, zealously laboured to repress it; and in 1824, the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals was instituted. Its new house in Jermyn-street, London, was founded 4 May, 1869. It opposed vivisection in 1860, in unison with a French society. Mr. Martin's act was passed 1822, and similar acts were passed in 1827, 1835, 1837, 1849, and 1854. Dogs were forbidden to be used for draught in 1839.

ANJOU, a province, W. France, was taken by Henry II. of England from his brother Geoffrey, in 1156; their father Geoffrey Plantagenet, count of Anjou, having married the empress Matilda in 1127. It was taken from king John by Philip of France in 1205; was reconquered by Edward III.; relinquished by him at the peace of Brétigny in 1360, and given by Charles V. to his brother Louis with the title of duke. The university was formed in 1349.

1360. Louis I. duke, invested by the pope with the dominions of Joanna of Naples, 1391; his invading army destroyed by the plague, 1383; he dies, 1384. 1384. Louis II., his son, receives the same grant, but is also unsuccessful.

Louis III., adopted by Joanna; dies 1434.

1434. Regnier or René le bon (a prisoner) declared king of Naples, 1435; his daughter, Margaret, married Henry VI. of England, 1445; he was expelled from Anjou by Louis XI., 1474, and his estates confiscated. Francis, duke of Alençon, brother to Henry III. of France, became duke of Anjou; at one time he favoured the Protestants, and vainly offered marriage to Elizabeth of England, 1581-82; died 1584.

ANJOU or BEAUGÉ, BATTLE OF, between the English and French; the latter commanded by the dauphin of France, 22 March, 1421. The English were defeated: the duke of Clarence was slain by sir Allan Swinton, a Scotch knight, and 1500 men perished on the field; the earls of Somerset, Dorset, and Huntingdon were taken prisoners. Beangé was the first battle that turned the tide of success against the English.

ANNAM or ANAM, an empire of Asia, to the east of India, comprising Tonquin, Cochin China, part of Cambodia, and various islands in the Chinese, Sea; said to have been conquered by the Chinese, 234 B.C., and held by them till A.D. 263. In 1406 they reconquered it, but abandoned it in 1428. After much anarchy, bishop Adran, a French mishis pupil Gia-long, the son of the nominally reignsionary, obtained the friendship of Louis XVI, for ing monarch, and with the aid of a few of his countrymen established Gia-long on the throne, who reigned till his death in 1821, when his son became king. In consequence of the persecution of the Christians, war broke out with the French, who defeated the army of Annam, 10,000 strong, about 22 April, 1859, when 500 were killed. On 3 June, 1862, peace was made; three provinces were ceded to the French, and toleration of the Christians granted. An insurrection in these provinces against the French, begun about 17 Dec. 1862, was suppressed in Feb. 1863. Ambassadors sent from Annam with the view of regaining the ceded provinces arrived at Paris in Sept. 1863, had no success. Three provinces were annexed to the French empire by proclamation, 25 June, 1867. Several native Christians were massacred by order of a bonze, July, 1868.

ANNAPOLIS, see Port Royal.

ANNATES, see First Fruits.

ANNO DOMINI, A.D., the year of Our Lord, of Grace, of the Incarnation, of the Circumcision, and of the Crucifixion (Trabeationis). The Christian era commenced 1 Jan. in the middle of

the 4th year of the 194th Olympiad, the 753rd year of the building of Rome, and in 4714 of the Julian period. This era was invented by a monk, Dionyintroduced into Italy in the 6th century, and sius Exiguus or Denys le Petit, about 532. It was ordered to be used by bishops by the council of Chelsea, in 816, but was not generally employed the first who added "in the year of our Lord” to for several centuries. Charles III. of Germany was his reign, in 879. It is now held that Christ was born Friday, 5 April, 4 B.C.

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ANNOYANCE JURIES," of Westminster, chosen from the householders in conformity with 27 Eliz. c. 17 (1585), were abolished in 1861.

ANNUAL REGISTER, a summary of the history of each year (beginning with 1758, and continued to the present time), was commenced by the whole work, but afterwards became only an R. & J. Dodsley. (Edmund Burke at first wrote occasional contributor. Prior.) A similar work, the "Annuaire des Deux Mondes," began in l'aris in 1850.

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ANNUITIES or PENSIONS. In 1512, 20l. a year were given to a lady of the court for services done; and 67. 138. 4d. for the maintenance of a gentleman, 1536. 137. 6s. 8d. deemed competent to support a gentleman in the study of the law, 1554. An act was passed empowering the government to borrow one million sterling upon an annuity of fourteen per cent., 4-6 Will. & Mary, 1691-3. This mode of borrowing soon afterwards became

general among governments. An annuity of

11. 28. 11d. per annum, accumulating at 10 per cent., compound interest, amounts in 100 years to 20,000l. The Government Annuities and Life Assurances Act was passed in 1864, for the benefit of the working classes; since it enables the government to grant deferred annuities for sums payable in small instalments. Works on annuities were published by De Witt, 1671; De Moivre, 1724; Simpson, 1742; Tables by Price, 1792; Milne, 1815; Jones, 1843; Farre, 1864.

ANNUITY TAX: a tax levied to provide stipends for ministers in Edinburgh and Montrose, and which caused much disaffection, was abolished in 1860, and other provisions made for the purpose. These, however, proved equally unpalatable, and its abolition was provided for by an act passed 9 Aug. 1870.

ANNUNCIATION OF THE VIRGIN MARY, 25th of March, Lady-day (which see), a festival commemorating the tidings brought to Mary by the angel Gabriel (Luke i. 26): its origin is referred to the 4th or 5th century. The religious order of the Annunciation was instituted in 1232, and the military order, in Savoy, by Amadeus, count of Savoy, in memory of Amadeus I., who had bravely defended Rhodes against the Turks, 1355.

ANOINTING, an ancient ceremony observed at the inauguration of priests, kings, and bishops. Aaron was anointed as high priest, 1491 B.C.; and Saul, as king, 1095 B.C. Alfred the Great is said to have been the first English king anointed, A.D. 871; and Edgar of Scotland, 1098.-The religious rite is derived from the epistle of James v. 14, about A.D. 60. Some authors assert that in 550, dying persons, and persons in extreme danger of death, were anointed with consecrated oil, and that this was the origin of Extreme Unction (one of the sacraments of the Roman Catholic Church).

ANONYMOUS LETTERS, see Threatening

Letters.

ANORTHOSCOPE, a new optical apparatus, described by Dr. Carpenter in 1868. In it distorted figures lose their distortion when put into rapid

motion.

ANTALCIDAS, PEACE OF. In 387 B.C. Antalcidas the Lacedaemonian made peace with Artaxerxes of Persia, on behalf of Greece, but principally in favour of Sparta, giving up the cities of Ionia to the king.

ANTARCTIC POLE, the opposite to the north or arctic pole; see Southern Continent.

ANTEDILUVIAN HISTORY, Genesis iv., V., vi. According to the tables of Mr. Whiston, the number of people in the ancient world, previous to the Flood, reached to 549,755 millions in the year of the world 1482.

ANTHEMS. Hilary, bishop of Poictiers, and St. Ambrose composed them about the middle of the 4th century. Lenglet. They were introduced into the church service in 386. Baker. Ignatius is said to have introduced them into the Greek, and St. Ambrose into the Western Church. They were introduced into the Reformed churches in queen Elizabeth's reign, about 1565. T. Tallis and R. Tarrant, early English anthem writers, died 1585. ANTHRACENE, see Alizarine.

ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY (an

thrūpos, Greek for man), for promoting the science of man and mankind, held its first meeting on 24 chair. The "Anthropological Review" first came Feb. 1863; Dr. James Hunt, president, in the logical Societies were amalgamated 17 Jan. 1871. out in May, 1863. The Anthropological and Ethnoand styled "The Anthropological Institute," Sir John Lubbock, president.

ANTHROPOPHAGI (eaters of human flesh),

see Cannibals.

ANTIBURGHERS, see Burghers.

ANTICHRIST (opposed to Christ), 1 John ii. 18, termed the "Man of sin," 2 Thess. ii. 3; of these passages many interpretations have been given, and many myths were current in the middle ages, respecting the incarnation of the devil, &c. The term is applied to each other by Roman Catholics and Protestants.

ANTI-CORN-LAW LEAGUE, for procuring the repeal of the laws charging duty on the importation of corn, sprung from various metropolitan and provincial associations, was founded at Manchester, 18 Sept. 1838, and supported by Messrs. Charles Villiers, Richard Cobden, John Bright, &c.; see Corn Laws, and Protectionists.

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The League at Manchester proposed to raise 50,000l., to depute lecturers throughout the country, and to print pamphlets 20 Oct. First meeting at Drury-lane Theatre. 15 March, 1843 Monthly meetings at Covent Garden, commenced 28 Sept.; great free-trade meetings at Manchester 14 Nov. 1843, and 22 Jan. 1845 Bazaar at Covent-Garden opened 5 May, Great Manchester meeting, at which the Leagu proposed to raise a quarter of a million sterling 23 Dec. The Corn Importation Bill having passed, 26 June, the League is formally dissolved; Mr. Cobden was rewarded by a national subscription, nearly 80,000l. 2 July, 1846 On the accession of the Derby ministry, a revival of the Anti-Corn-Law League was proposed at Manchester, and a subscription was opened, which produced within half an hour 27,520l. (soon proved unnecessary) . 2 Mar. 1352

ANTIETAM CREEK, near Sharpsburg, Maryland, U. S. Here was fought a terrible battle on 17 Sept. 1862, between the Federals under gene

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