GALL, ST. (in Switzerland). The abbey, founded in the 7th century, was surrounded by a town in the 10th. St. Gall became a canton of the confederation in 1815. GALLEYS with three rows of rowers, triremes, were invented by the Corinthians, 786 B.C. Blair. The terms "galley slave," and "condemned to the galleys," arose from these sea vessels having from 25 to 30 benches on each side, manned by four or five slaves to each bench. In France they had a general of galleys, of whom the baron de la Garde was the first, 1544. The punishment of the galleys (galeres) has been superseded by the "travaux forcés," forced labour, regulated by a law of 1854, the men being called "forçats." GALLICAN CHURCH, see Church of France. GALLIPOLI, the ancient Callipolis, a seaport in Turkey in Europe, 128 miles west of Constantinople. It was taken by the Turks in 1357, and fortified by Bajazet I. The first division of the French and English armies proceeding against the Russians landed here in March and April, 1854. GALOCHES, French for overshoes, formerly of leather; but since 1843 made of vulcanised India rubber. The importation of Galoshes was prohibited by 3 Edw. IV. c. 4 (1463). GALVANISM AND GALVANO-PLASTICS, see under Electricity, p. 232. GALWAY (W. Ireland). The ancient settlers here were divided into thirteen tribes, a distinction not yet forgotten. It was conquered by Richard de Burgo in 1232. In 1690 Galway city declared for king James, but was taken by general Ginckel soon after the decisive battle of Aughrim, 12 July, 1691. Here is one of the new colleges, endowed by government, pursuant to act 8 & 9 Vict. c. 66 (1845), inaugurated, 30 Oct. 1849, see Colleges and Ireland, 1872-3. In 1858 the sailing of mail steam packets from Galway to America began; but the subsidy ceased in May, 1861, through the company's breach of contract, which occasioned much discussion in parliament. In July, 1863, the contract for the conveyance of mails from Galway to America was renewed, and 75,000l. voted for the purpose. The scheme was not successful. On 9 Nov. the steamer Anglia struck on the Black rock, and the mails were taken to Dublin. The last packet sailed in Feb. 1864. GAMBOGE, a medicine and pigment, brought from India by the Dutch, about 1600. Hermann in 1677 announced that it was derived from two trees of Ceylon, since ascertained to belong to the order Guttifera. GAMES. Candidates for athletic games in Greece were dieted on new cheese, dried figs, and boiled grain, with warm water, and no meat. The sports were leaping, foot-races, quoits, wrestling, and boxing; see Capitoline, Isthmian, Olympic, Pythian, Secular Games, &c. GAMING was introduced into England by the Saxons; Act prohibiting gaming to all gentlemen (and inter- . 1541 1620 Any person losing, by betting or playing, more than 100l. at any one time, not compellable to pay the same, 16 Chas. II. . Bonds or other securities given for money won at play not recoverable; and any person losing more than rol. may sue the winner to recover it back, 9 Anne, c. 14 Act to prevent excessive and fraudulent gaming, when all private lotteries and the games of faro, basset, and hazard were suppressed The profits of a gaming-house in London for one season have been estimated at 150,000l. In one night a million of money is said to have changed hands at this place. Leigh. A bankrupt was refused his certificate because he had lost 51. at one time in gaming 1663 1710 . 1739 17 July, 1788 1838 Three ladies of quality convicted in penalties of 1839 1853 GAMUT. The scale of musical intervals (commonly termed do or ut, re, mi, fa, sol, la, to which si was added afterwards), for which the first seven letters of the alphabet are now employed, is mentioned by Guido Aretino, a Tuscan monk, about 1025. GANGES CANAL, for irrigating the country between the Ganges and the Jumna. The main line (525 miles long) was opened 8 April, 1854 The immense difficulties in its execution were overcome by the skill and perseverance of its engineer, sir Proby Cautley. In Oct. 1864, sir Arthur Cotton asserted that the work was badly done, and the investment only paid 3 per cent. GANGS, see Agricultural Gangs. GAOL DISTEMPER, see Old Bailey. GARDENING. The first garden, Eden with allusions to gardens, particularly the Song of planted by God. Gen. ii. The Scriptures abound Solomon and the prophets; and Christ's agony took place in a garden. Xenophon describes the gardens at Sardis; and Epicurus and Plato taught in gardens. Theophrastus's History of Plants was written about GAME LAWS are a remnant of the forest laws imposed by William the Conqueror, who, to preserve his game, made it forfeiture of property to disable a wild beast, and loss of eyes, for a stag, buck or boar. The clergy protested against ameliorations of these laws, under Henry Ill. The first 322 B.C. Horace, Virgil, and Ovid derive many game act passed in 1496. Game certificates were images from the garden (50 B.C. to A.D. 50); and first granted with a duty in 1784. The Game act Pliny's Tusculan villa is circumstantially described (1 & 2 Will. IV. c. 32), greatly modifying all pre- (about A.D. 100). The Romans introduced gardenvious laws, was passed in 1831. By it the sale of ing into Britain, the religious orders maintained it, game is legalised at certain seasons. By the Game and its cultivation increased in the 16th century, Poaching Preventive act, passed in 1862, greatly when many Flemings came here to escape the perincreased powers were given to the county police.secutions of Philip II. Miller's dictionary was pubLicences to kill game granted for the year 1856-7, 28,950; for 1865-6, 43.231; for 1869, 54.203. Convictions under the game laws in 1869, 10,345. lished in 1724; the Horticultural Society (which see) was established in 1804; Loudon's Encyclopalia of Gardening was first published in 1822, and ORIGINAL KNIGHTS. King Edward III., sovereign. Edward, prince of Wales (called the Black Prince). Henry, duke of Lancaster. GARDENERS' CHRONICLE, a weekly Ralph, earl of Stafford. paper, long edited by Dr. John Lindley, first appeared, 2 Jan. 1841. GARIGLIANO, a river (S. W. Italy). After long waiting and refusing to recede a step, the great captain Gonsalvo de Cordova made a bridge over this river, 127 Dec. 1503, and surprised and totally defeated the French army. few days after. Gaëta surrendered a GAROTTE, a machine for strangling criminals, used in Spain. Many attempts to strangle made by thieves (termed garrotters,") in the winter of 1862-3, led to the passing of an act in July, 1863, to punish these acts by flogging. GARTER, ORDER OF THE. Edward III., when at war with France and eager to draw the best soldiers of Europe into his interest, projected the revival of king Arthur's round table, proclaimed a solemn tilting. On New Year's day 1343-4, he published letters of protection for the safe coming and returning of such foreign knights as would venture their reputation at the jousts and tournaments about to be held. These took place 23rd April, 1344. A table was erected in Windsor castle of 200 feet diameter, and the knights were entertained at the king's expense. In 1346 Edward gave his garter for the signal of a battle that had been crowned with success (supposed to be Cressy), and being victorious on sea and land, and having David, king of Scotland, a prisoner, he, in memory of these exploits, is said to have instituted this order, 23 April, 1349. Edward III. gave the garter pre-eminence among the ensigns of the order; it is of blue velvet bordered with gold, with the inscription in old French-"Honi soit qui mal y pense" (Evil be to him who evil thinks). The knights are installed at Windsor, and styled Equites aurem Periscelidis, knights of the golden garter. Beatson. The order until king Edward VI.'s time was called the order of St. George, the patron saint of England. His figure on horseback, presented as holding a spear, and killing the dragon, was first worn by the knights of the institution. It is suspended by a blue ribbon across the body from the shoulder. William, earl of Salisbury. Bartholomew, lord Burghershe. Thomas, earl of Kent. John, lord Grey, of Rotherfield. Sir Miles Stapleton. Sir James Audeley. Sir Otho Holand. Sir Sanchet d'Abrichecourt. Mr. David Pollock, father of the late chief baron, was governor of the first "chartered" gas company 1812 Gas first used in Dublin, 1818; the streets generally Sydney, in Australia, was lit with gas 25 May, 1841 GASTEIN (Salzburg, Austria). The long discussion between Austria and Prussia respecting the disposal of the duchies conquered from Denmark, was closed by a provisional convention signed here by their ministers (Blum for Austria and Bismarck for Prussia) 14 Aug. 1865. This convention was severely censured by the other powers and abrogated in 1866. Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig; the establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal harbour, held by Prussia; Lauenburg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. GATES, see London Gates. GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a parliamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854. a fire broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of nitre, sulphur, &c., causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. The dainage was estimated at about a million pounds. GATLING GUN OR BATTERY. An American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It is intended to discharge at once a number of projectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it has as many locks as barrels, It was tried at Shoeburyness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, Aug. 1870. GAUGAMELA, see Arbela. GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunel approved of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western Railway; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, chose the narrow, now almost universally adopted even by the Great Western. A 2-foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, having been successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, with Fairlie's engine. GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. GAUL AND GAULS. Gallia the ancient name of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed by the Greeks Galatæ, by the Romans, Galli or Celta, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Galicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). The Phocæans found Massilia, now Marseilles The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum B. C. 600 13 July, 390 367 295 283 278 The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C.; are beaten at Delphi, 279; and by Antigonus, king of Macedon. The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 225 222 218, &c. The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius Introduction of Christianity 121-58 118 -58-50 41 A. D. 43 120 160 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian And by Probus, 275, 277; who introduces the culture of the vine. 241 280 GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was a challenge to an commonly thrown down as adversary. GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the Roman people. "Brocades and damasks and tabbies and gauzes have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, began about 1759. GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif cal cyn, "give all suitably;" or from gafoleynd, land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the rest equally among male children, without any distinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of the father were equally divided among all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Dict. GAZA, a city of the Philistines, of which Samson carried off the gates about 1120 B.C. (Judges Many of the fugitives came to Ireland in July, 1783; but they soon after abandoned it; many Genevese settled in England. xvi.) It was taken by Alexander after a long siege, A revolution; executions and imprisonments, 332; and near to it Ptolemy defeated Demetrius Poliorcetes, 312 B.C. It was taken by Saladin A.D. 1170; by Bonaparte, March, 1799; and by the Egyptians under Ibrahim Pacha in 1831. GELHEIM, near Worms, central Germany. Here the emperor Adolphus of Nassau was defeated and slain by his rival Albert I. of Austria, 2 July, 1298. GAZETTES, see Newspapers. ap GEMS. The Greeks excelled in cutting precious stones, and many ancient specimens remain. The art was revived in Italy in the 15th century. In Feb. 1860, Herz's collection of gems was sold for 10,000l. Rev. C. King's "Antique Gems". peared in 1860, and his "Natural History of Precious Stones and Gems" in 1865. Dr. A. Billing's "Science of Gems," 1868. Artificial gems have been recently produced by chemists (Ebelmen, Deville, Wöhler, and others), 1858-65. GENEALOGY, from the Greek genea, birth, descent. The earliest pedigrees are contained in the 5th, 10th, and 11th chapters of Genesis. The first book of Chronicles contains many genealogies. The pedigree of Christ is given in Matt. i. and Luke iii. Many books on the subject have been published in all European countries; one at Magdeburg, Theatrum Genealogicum, by Henninges, in 1598. Anderson, Royal Genealogies, London, 1732. Sims' Manual for the Genealogist, &c., 1856, will be found a useful guide. The works of Collins (1756 et seq.), Edmondson (1764-84), and Nicolas (1825 and 1857), on the British peerage, are highly esteemed. The Genealogical society, London, established in 1853. GENERAL ASSEMBLY, see Church of Scotland. GENERAL COUNCILS, WARRANTS, see Councils, Warrants. GENERALS. Matthew de Montmorency was the first general of the French armies, 1203. Hénault. Balzac states that cardinal Richelieu coined the word Generalissimo, upon his taking the supreme command of the French armies in Italy, in 1629. Ulysses Grant was the first general of the army of the United States of America, so styled in 1866; see Commanders-in-Chief. GENERATION (in Chronology), the interval of time between the birth of a father and the birth of his child: 33 years are allowed for the average length of a generation. See Spontaneous. GENEVA, a town of the Allobroges, a Gallic tribe, 58 B.C.; became part of the empire of Charlemagne, about A.D. 800; and capital of the kingdom of Burgundy, 426. 1784 July, 1794 26 April, 1798 30 Dec. 1813 1846 Geneva incorporated with France Admitted into the Swiss Confederation, The constitution made more democratic Revolution, through an endeavour of the Catholic cantons to introduce Jesuits as teachers; a provisional government set up . [The scheme was withdrawn.] About 50 persons from Geneva land at Thonon and Evian, to set up the Swiss flag; but are brought back by Swiss troops. 7 Oct. 1848 30 Mar. 1860 Election riots, with loss of life, through the indiseretion of M. Fazy. 22 Aug. 1864 21-23 Aug. 1865 49th annual meeting of the Helvetic Society of Garibaldi present, National Sciences held Violent peace congress 15 June, 1872 12 Sept. 1867 The Alabama arbitration commission met; received the cases and adjourned to 15 June, 1872, 18 Dec. 1871 Formal meeting of the commission (see Alabama), Monsignor Mermillod, nominated bishop of Geneva (in the diocese of the bishop of Lausanne), and vicar apostolie; his arrest proposed, 2 Feb.; ordered to quit, if he will not submit to the civil government by 15 Feb.; he is expelled 17 Feb. GENEVA CONVENTION, for the succour of the wounded in time of active warfare. Having been a witness of the horrors of the battle-field of Solferino, 24 June, 1859, M. Henri Dunant, a the Société Généroise d'Utilité Publique in Feb. Swiss, published his experiences, which induced 1863 to discuss the question whether relief societies might not be formed in time of peace to help the wounded in time of war by means of qualified volunteers. At an international conference held 26 Oct. 1863, fourteen governments, including Great Britain, France, Austria, Prussia, Italy, and Russia, were represented by delegates. The propositions then drawn up were accepted as an international code by a congress which met at Geneva, 8 Aug. 1864, and on 22 Aug. a convention was signed by twelve of the delegates, and it was eventually adopted by all civilised powers except the United States. International conferences were held at Paris in 1867 and at Berlin in 1869 for further developing in a practical manner the objects of the Geneva conference. The International Society (termed "the Red Cross Society"), established in consequence of these proceedings was very energetic in relieving the wounded and sick during the Franco-Prussian war in 1870, its flag being recognised as neutral. See Aid to Sick and Wounded Above 13,000 volunteers said to be employed in attending the sick and wounded, Sept.-Dec., 1870. At a meeting in London, 6 Aug., 1872, M. Dunant proposed a plan for the uniform treatment of prisoners of war. GENOA, the ancient Genua (N. Italy). Its inhabitants were the Ligures, who submitted to the Romans, 115 B.C. It partook of the revolutions of the Roman empire. Genoa becomes a free commercial state about 1000 1070-1284 Frederick II. captures 22 galleys, and vainly be sieges Genoa The families of Doria and Spinola obtain ascendancy, 1241 about 1270 The Genoese destroy the naval power of Pisa at Rafaele Doria and Galeotto Spinola, appointed captains. 6 Aug. 1284 1218-32; 1293-99 1335 1356 Simon Boccanegra made the first doge, 1339: set aside by the nobles, 1344; re-appointed. Great discord; many doges appointed An economical gas produced from bitumen at Woolwich arsenal Jan. 1868 1849 Central Gas Company, London, established Gas successfully tried as fuel for the generation of steam by Jackson's patent April, 1868 The Central Gas company robbed of about 70,000l. by Benjamin Higgs, a clerk; discovered, April, 1869 Gas-light tried at Howth lighthouse, near Dublin, July, Gasworks clauses act passed 13 July, 1871 By the London gas act, passed 13 July, 1868, ordinary gas charged 38. 9d. the 1000 cubic feet, after I Jan. 1870. Strike of London gas-stokers, 2400 out, 2 Dec.; the inconvenience met by great exertion, 2-6 Dec.; several tried and imprisoned . Dec. 1872 Austria was to have the temporary government of Holstein, and Prussia that of Sleswig; the establishment of a German fleet was proposed, with Kiel as a Federal harbour, held by Prussia; Lauenburg was absolutely ceded to Prussia, and the king was to pay Austria as a compensation 2,500,000 Danish dollars. GATES, see London Gates. GATESHEAD, a borough in Durham, on the Tyne, opposite Newcastle. At Gateshead-fell, William I. defeated Edgar Atheling and his Scotch auxiliaries in 1068. Gateshead was made a parliamentary borough by the reform act in 1832. Between twelve and one o'clock, 5, 6 Oct. 1854, a fire broke out in a worsted manufactory here, which set fire to a bond warehouse containing a great quantity of nitre, sulphur, &c., causing a terrific explosion, felt at nearly twenty miles' distance, and totally destroying many buildings, and burying many persons in the ruins. At the moment of the explosion, large masses of blazing materials flew over the Tyne and set fire to many warehouses in Newcastle. About fifty lives were lost, and very many persons were seriously wounded. The damage was estimated at about a million pounds. pro GATLING GUN OR BATTERY. An American invention exhibited at Paris in 1867. It is intended to discharge at once a number of jectiles smaller than the shells of field guns, and it has as many locks as barrels, It was tried at Shoe buryness and rejected as inferior to a field gun firing shrapnel. A powder to be used in the Gatling, invented by M. Pertuiset, was tried in London, Aug. 1870. GAUGAMELA, see Arbela. GAUGES (in railways). Much discussion (termed "the battle of the gauges") began among engineers about 1833. Mr. I. M. Brunel approved of the broad gauge, adopted on the Great Western Railway; and Mr. R. Stephenson, Joseph Locke, and others, chose the narrow, now almost universally adopted even by the Great Western. A 2-foot gauge was recommended in Feb. 1870, having been successful on the Festiniog railway, Wales, with Fairlie's engine. GAUGING, measuring the contents of any vessel of capacity, with respect to wine and other liquids, was established by a law, 27 Edw. III. 1352. GAUL AND GAULS. Gallia the ancient name of France and Belgium. The Gauls termed by the Greeks Galate, by the Romans, Galli or Celta, came originally from Asia, and invading Eastern Europe, were driven westward, and settled in Spain (in Galicia), North Italy (Gallia Cisalpina), France and Belgium (Gallia Transalpina), and the British isles (the lands of the Cymry or Gaels). The Phocæans found Massilia, now Marseilles The Galli Senones under Brennus defeat the Romans at the river Allia, and sack Rome; are defeated and expelled by Camillus Again defeated B. C. 600 13 July, 390 367 295 283 The Gauls defeated by the Romans at Sentinum The Senones defeat the Romans at Arretium ; nearly exterminated by Dolabella The Gauls overrun Northern Greece, 280 B.C.; are beaten at Delphi, 279; and by Antigonus, king of Macedon. The Gauls defeated with great slaughter near Pisa. 278 225 222 218, &c. The Romans conquer Gallia Cisalpina, 220; invade Julius Caesar subdues Gaul in 8 campaigns Druids' religion proscribed by Claudius Introduction of Christianity 121-58 118 58-50 4I A. D. 43 120 160 177, 202, 257, 286, 288 The Franks and others defeated by Aurelian. And by Probus, 275, 277; who introduces the culture of the vine. Maximian defeats the Franks Clodion, chief of the Salian Franks, invades Gaul GAUNTLET, an iron glove, first introduced in the 13th century, perhaps about 1225. It was a challenge to an commonly thrown down as adversary. GAUZE, a fabric much prized among the Roman people. "Brocades and damasks and tabbies and gauzes have been lately brought over" (to Ireland). Dean Swift, in 1698. The manufacture of gauze and articles of a light fabric at Paisley, in Scotland, began about 1759. GAVEL-KIND (derived from the Saxon gif cal cyn, "give all suitably;' or from gafoleynd, land yielding rent), the custom in Kent of dividing paternal estates in land, the wives to have half, the rest equally among male children, without any distinction, 550. By the Irish law of gavel-kind, even bastards inherited. Davies. Not only the lands of the father were equally divided among all his sons, but the lands of the brother also among all his brethren, if he had no issue of his own. Law Dict. |
