HARMONIUM, a keyed instrument, resembling the accordion, the tones being generated by the action of wind upon metallic reeds. The Chinese were well acquainted with the effects produced by vibrating tongues of metal. M. Biot stated, in 1810, that they were used musically by M. Grenié; and in 1827-29, free reed stops were employed in organs at Beauvais and Paris. The best known harmoniums in England are those of Alexandre and Debain, the latter claiming to be the original maker of the French instrument. In 1841, | Mr. W. E. Evans, of Cheltenham, produced his English harmonium, then termed the Organ-Harmonica, and by successive improvements he produced a fine instrument, with diapason quality, and great rapidity of speech, without loss of power. English Cyclopædia.

HARNESS, chariots and the leathern dressings used for horses to draw them, are said to have been the invention of Erichthonius of Athens, who was made a constellation after his death, under the name of Bootes (Greek for ploughman), about 1487 B.C.

HARO, CRY OF (Clameur de Haro), traditionally derived from Raoul, or Rollo, of Normandy, ancestor of our Norman princes of England. Rollo administered justice so well, that injured persons cried "à Raoul!" The cry was raised in a church in Jersey in 1859.

HARP. Invented by Jubal, 3875 B.C. (Gen. iv. 21). David played the harp before Saul, 1063 B.C. 1 Sam. xvi. 23. The Cimbri, or English Saxons, had this instrument. The celebrated Welsh harp was strung with gut; and the Irish harp, like the more ancient harps, with wire. Erard's improved harps were first patented in 1795.

One of the most ancient harps existing is that of Brian Boroimhe, monarch of Ireland: it was given by his son Donagh to pope John XVIII., together with the crown and other regalia of his father, in order to obtain absolution for the murder of his brother Teig. Adrian IV. alleged this as being one of his principal titles to the kingdom of Ireland in his bull transferring it to Henry II. This harp was given by Leo X. to Henry VIII, who presented it to the first earl of Clanricarle it then came into possession of the family of De Burgh; next into that of Mac Mahon of Clenagh, county of Clare; afterwards into that of MacNamara of Limerick; and was at length deposited by the right hon. William Conyngham in the College Museum, Dublin, in 1782.

HARPER'S FERRY (Virginia), see United States, 1859-62.

HARRISON'S TIME-PIECE, made by John Harrison, of Foulby, near Pontefract. In 1714, the government offered rewards for methods of determining the longitude at sea; Harrison came to London, and produced his first time-piece in 1735; his second in 1739; his third in 1749; and his fourth, which procured him the reward of 20,000l. offered by the Board of longitude, a few years after. He obtained 10,000l. of his reward in 1764,

and other sums, more than 24,000l. in all, for further improvements in following years.

In the patent museum at South Kensington is an eightday clock made by Harrison in 1715. It strikes the hour, indicates the day of the month, and with one exception (the escapement) its wheels are entirely made of wood. The clock was going in 1871.

HARROGATE (Yorkshire). The first or old spa in Knaresborough forest was discovered by capt. Slingsby in 1571: a dome was erected over the well by lord Rosslyn in 1786. Two other chalybeate springs are the Alum well and the Towit spa. The sulphureous well was discovered in 1783. The theatre was erected in 1788. The Bath hospital was erected by subscription in 1825.

HARROW-ON-THE-HILL SCHOOL (Middlesex), founded and endowed by John Lyon in 1571. To encourage archery, the founder instituted a prize of a silver arrow to be shot for annually on the 4th of August; but the custom has been abolished. Lord Palmerston, sir R. Peel, the statesman, and lord Byron, the poet, were educated here. The school building suffered by fire, 22 Oct. 1838. The school arrangements were modified by the public schools act, 1868. Charles II. called Harrow church "the visible church."

HARTLEY COAL MINE (Northumberland). On 16 Jan. 1862, one of the iron beams, about 12 tons weight, at the mouth of the ventilating shaft, broke and fell, destroyed the brattice, divided the shaft, and carried down sufficient timber to kill two men who were ascending the shaft, and buried alive 202 persons, men and boys. Several days elapsed before the bodies could be removed. Much sympathy was shown by the queen and the public, and about 50,000l. were collected for the bereaved families. The coroner's verdict asserted the necessity of two shafts to coal mines, and recommended that the beams of colliery engines should be of malleable instead of cast iron.

HARTWELL (Buckinghamshire), the retreat of Louis XVIII., king of France, 1807-14. He landed in England at Yarmouth, 6 Oct. 1807, took up his residence at Gosfield-hall, in Essex, and afterwards came to Hartwell, as the count de Lille. His consort died here in 1810. On his restoration, he embarked at Dover for France, 24 April, 1814; see France.

HARUSPICES, priests or soothsayers, of Etruscan origin, who foretold events from observing entrails of animals. They were introduced to Rome by Romulus (about 750 B.C.), and abolished by Constantine, A.D. 337, at which time they were seventy in number.

HARVARD COLLEGE (Massachusetts, North America) was founded by the general court at Boston, on 28 Oct. 1636. It derived its name from John Harvard, who bequeathed to it his library and a sum of money in 1638.

HASTINGS, a cinque-port, Sussex; said to owe its name to the Danish pirate Hastinge, who built forts here, about 893; but Mr. Kemble thinks it was the seat of a Saxon tribe named Hastingas. At Senlac, now Battle, near Hastings, more than 30,000 were slain in the conflict between Harold II. of England and William duke of Normandy, the former losing his life and kingdom, 14 Oct. 1066, his birthday. He and his two brothers were interred at Waltham abbey, Essex. The new town, St. Leonard's-on-Sea, was begun in 1828. A new pier

here was inaugurated by earl Granville, 5 Aug. 1872.

HASTINGS' TRIAL. Warren Hastings, governor-general of India, was tried by the peers of Great Britain for high crimes and misdemeanours. Among other charges was his acceptance of a present of 100,000l. from the nabob of Oude; see Chunar, Treaty of. The trial lasted seven years and three months; commencing 13 Feb. 1788, terminating in his acquittal, 23 April, 1795. Mr. Sheridan's speech on the impeachment excited great admira

tion.

Hastings was born in 1732; went to India as a writer in 1750; became governor-general of Bengal in 1772; of India, 1773; governed ably, but, it is said, unscrupulously and tyrannically, till he resigned in 1785. The expenses of his trial (70,000l.) were paid by the East India Company; and a pension was granted to him. He died a privy-councillor in 1818.

HATELY FIELD, see Shrewsbury. HATFIELD'S ATTEMPT. On 11 May, 1800, during a review in Hyde-park, a shot from an undiscovered hand was fired, which wounded a young gentleman who stood near king Geo. III. In the evening, when his majesty was at Drury-lane theatre, Hatfield fired a pistol at him. Hatfield was confined as a lunatic till his death, 23 Jan. 1841, aged 69 years.

HATS, first made by a Swiss at Paris, 1404. When Charles VII. made his triumphal entry into Rouen, in 1449, he wore a hat lined with red velvet, and surmounted with a rich plume of feathers. Henceforward, hats and caps, at least in France, began to take place of chaperons and hoods. Hénault. Hats were first manufactured in England by Spaniards in 1510. Stow. Very high-crowned hats were worn by queen Elizabeth's courtiers; and high crowns were again introduced in 1783. A stamp-duty laid upon hats in 1784, and in 1796, was repealed in 1811. Silk hats began to supersede beaver about 1820.

None allowed to sell any hat for above 20d, nor cap for above 2s. 8d., 5 Henry VII. 1489. Every person above seven years of age to wear on Sundays and holidays, a cap of wool, knit, made, thickened, and dressed in England by some of the trade of cappers, under the forfeiture of three farthings for every day's neglect, 1571. Excepted: maids, ladies, and gentlewomen, and every lord, knight, and gentleman, of twenty marks of land, and their heirs, and such as had borne office of worship, in any city, town, or place, and the wardens of London companies, 1571.

HATTERAS EXPEDITION, see United States, Aug. 1861.

HAU-HAU FANATICS, see New Zealand,

1865.

HAVANNAH, capital of Cuba, West Indies, founded by Velasquez, 1511; taken by lord Albemarle, 14 Aug. 1762; restored, 1763; the remains of Columbus were brought from St. Domingo and deposited in the cathedral here, 1795.

HAVRE-DE-GRÂCE (N. W. France) was defended for the Huguenots by the English in 1562; who, however, were expelled in 1563. It was bombarded by Rodney, 6 to 9 July, 1759; by sir Richard Strachan, 25 May, 1798; and blockaded, 6 Sept. 1803. The attempts of the British to burn the shipping here failed, 7 Aug. 1804. The International Maritime Exhibition here opened, I June,

1868.

HAWAII, see Owhyhee.

HAWKERS AND PEDLARS were first licensed in 1698. Licensing commissioners were appointed in 1810. The expense of licensing was reduced in 1861, and regulated by the Pedlars' Act, 1871. |

HAWKING, see Falconry.

HAYMARKET (Westminster), opened in 1864, was removed to Cumberland-market, 1 Jan. 1831. The Haymarket theatre was opened in 1702; see Theatres. Mr. Buckstone manager, 1853-72.

HAYTI or HAITI, Indian name of a West Indian island, discovered by Columbus in Dec. 1492, and named Hispaniola, and afterwards St. Domingo. Before the Spaniards fully conquered it, they are said to have destroyed, in battle or cold blood, three million of its inhabitants, including women and children, 1495. It now comprises the republics of St. Domingo in the east, and Hayti in the west.. Population (1872) of Hayti, about 572,000; of St. Domingo, about 136,500.

Hayti seized by the filibusters and French bucca-
The French government took possession of the

neers

whole colony

The negroes revolt against France

1630

1677 23 Aug. 1791

And massacre nearly all the whites 21-23 June, 1793
The French directory recognise Toussaint l'Ouver-
ture as general-in-chief

The eastern part of the island eeded to France by
Spain
Toussaint establishes an independent republic in

St. Domingo

He surrenders to the French

29

1794

1795

.9 May, 1801 7 May, 1802 1803

Nov. ""

Is conducted to France, where he dies
A new insurrection, under the command of Dessa-
lines; the French quit the island
Dessalines proclaims the massacre of all the whites,
March; crowned emperor of Hayti, as Jacques I.,
8 Oct. 1804
He is assassinated, and the isle divided 17 Oct. 1806
Henry Christophe, a man of colour, president in
Feb. 1807; crowned emperor by the title of Henry
I., while Pethion rules as president at Port-au-
Prince
March, 1811

May, 1818

Numerous black nobility and prelates created Pethion dies; Boyer elected president Christophe commits suicide, Oct. 1820; the two states united under Boyer as regent for life, Nov. 1820; who is recognised by France Revolution: Boyer deposed.

St. Domingo and the eastern part of Hayti proclaim the "Dominican republic," Feb. 1844; recognised by France

1825

1843

1848

Hayti proclaimed an empire under its late president Solouque, who takes the title of Faustin I., 26 Aug. 1849; crowned 18 April, 1852 Faustin attacking the republic of St. Domingo, repulsed.

1 Feb. 1856 22 Dec. 1858 15 Jan. 1859

Revolution in Hayti: general Fabre Geffrard proclaims the republic of Hayti Faustin abdicates

Geffrard takes oath as president of Hayti 23 Jan.
Sixteen persons executed for a conspiracy against
Oct. ""

Geffrard

José Valverde elected president of the republic of St. Domingo, or Dominican republic March, 1858 Spanish emigrants land: a declaration for reunion with Spain signed 18 March, decreed by the queen 20 May, 1861 A Spanish force sent; the insurgents generally Insurrection against Spain in St. Domingo, 18 Aug. 1863

defeated.

1864 Great fire at Port-au-Prince; 600 houses destroyed, 23 Feb. 1865. St. Domingo renounced by Spain 5 May, Military insurrection under Salnave against GefCabral provisional president of St. Domingo, Sept. frard, 7 May; Cape Hayti seized. 9 May, 1865; B. Baez proclaimed president.

14 Nov.

33

Valorogue, a rebel vessel, fires into British Jamaica packet, near Acul, St. Domingo, 22 Oct.; Capt. Wake, H. M. S. Bulldog, threatens Valoroque; Salnave orders the removal of refugees from British consulate at Cape Hayti, shoots them, and destroys the building. The Bulldog, failing to obtain satisfaction, shells the fort, sinks the Valorogue, but gets on a reef; the crew is taken out, and she is blown up. H.M.S. Galatea and Lily take the other forts and give them up to Geffrard; the rebels flee inland 9 Nov. 1865 Capt. Wake censured by court-martial for losing his ship Hayti-another revolt against Geffrard suppressed,

Jan. 1866

5-11 July,

Revolution; Geffrard flies; banished for ever; Salnave president of Hayti

New constitution

27 March, June,

Revolution caused by Pimentel; Baez flies; Cabral

becomes president of St. Domingo.

Revolt against Salnave

.

June,
Sept. 1867

The ex-emperor Faustin (born a slave, 1791), died 1 Sept. City of San Domingo nearly destroyed by the hurricane 30 Oct. Insurrection against Salnave, 10 May; said to be successful, 26 May; English consul protecting foreigners Salnave defeats insurgents, and kills his prisoners, 3 June, Salnave proclaims himself emperor, Aug.; offers an Oct.

amnesty

June, 1868

Oct.

Civil war continued: Saget and Dominguez proclaimed president by their respective followers, Baez suppresses revolts in St. Domingo, June-Dec. 1863 Salnave finally defeated flies to the woods, 18 Dec. 1868: captured, tried, and shot Sale of Samana bay to the United States discussed, Jan.

15 Jan.

1870

Gen. Nissage Saget elected president of Hayti for four years (from 15 May) 19 March, Baez supports an insurrection against Hayti Aug. 1871 Tranquillity of Hayti reported by Saget 9 May, 1872 HEAD ACT, see note to Ireland, 1465. HEALTH, GENERAL BOARD OF, was appointed by the act for the promotion of the public health, passed in 1848; see Sanitary Legislation. This board was reconstructed in Aug. 1854, and sir Benjamin Hall was placed at its head, with a salary of 2000l.; succeeded by W. F. Cowper, Aug. 1855, and by Ch. B. Adderley in 1858. The expenses for the year 1856-7 were 12,325. In 1858 this board was incorporated into the privy council establishment; Dr. Simon being retained as medical officer. HEARTH, or CHIMNEY, TAX, on every fire-place or hearth in England, was imposed by Charles II. in 1662, when it produced about 200,000l. a year. It was abolished by William and Mary at the Revolution in 1689; imposed again, and again abolished.

HEAT (called by French chemists Caloric). Little progress had been made in the study of the phenomena of heat till about 1757, when Joseph Black put forward his theory of latent heat (heat, he said, being absorbed by melting ice), and of specific heat. Cavendish, Lavoisier, and others, continued Black's researches. Sir John Leslie put forth his views on radiant heat in 1804. Count Rumford put forth the theory that heat consists in motion among the particles of matter, which view he supported by experiments on friction (recorded in 1802). This theory (now called the dynamical or mechanical theory of heat, and used to explain all the phenomena of physics and chemistry) has been further substantiated by the independent researches of Dr. J. Meyer of Heilbronn and of Mr. Joule of Manchester (about 1840), who assert that heat is the equivalent of work done. In 1854,

Professor William Thomson, of Glasgow, published his researches on the dynamical power of the sun's rays. Thermo-electricity, produced by heating pieces of copper and bismuth soldered together, was discovered by Seebeck in 1823. A powerful thermoelectric battery was constructed by Marcus of Vienna, in 1865. Professor Tyndall's Heat, a Mode of Motion," first published Feb. 1863, third edition, 1868. The researches of philosophers are still devoted to this subject; see Calorescence. Greatest heat in the hot summer of 1868: at Nottingham, in sun, 1224; in shade, 92-2, 22 July, I p.m.

Captain Ericson constructed a ship, in which caloric, or heat, was the motive power. On 4 Jan. 1853, it sailed down the bay of New York, at the rate of 14 miles an hour, it is said at a cost of 80 per cent. less than steam. Although caloric engines were not successful, capt Ericson continued his experiments, and patented an improved engine in 1856.

HECATOMB, an ancient sacrifice of a hundred oxen, particularly observed by the Lacedemonians when they possessed a hundred cities. The sacrifice was subsequently reduced to twenty-three oxen, and goats and lambs were substituted.

HECLA, MOUNT (Iceland). Its first recorded eruption is 1004. About twenty-two eruptions have taken place, according to Ŏlasson and Paulson. Great convulsions of this mountain occurred in 1766, since when a visit to the top in summer is not attended with great difficulty. Perhaps the most awful volcanic eruption on record took place in 1784-5, when rivers were dried up, and many villages overwhelmed or destroyed. The mount was in a state of violent eruption from 2 Sept. 1845, to April, 1846. Three new craters were formed, from which pillars of fire rose to the height of 14,000 English feet. The lava formed several hills, and pieces of pumice stone and scoria of 2 cwt. were thrown to a distance of a league and a half; the ice and snow which had covered the mountain for centuries melted into prodigious floods.

HEGIRA, ERA OF THE, dates from the flight (Arabic hejra) of Mahomet, from Mecca to Medina, on the night of Thursday, 15 July, 622. The era commences on the 16th. Some compute this era from the 15th, but Cantemir proves that the 16th was the first day. 33 of its lunar years are equal to 32 of those of the vulgar era.

HEIDELBERG (Germany) was the capital of the Palatinate, 1362-1719. The protestant electoral house becoming extinct in 1693, a war ensued, in which the castle was ruined, and the elector removed his residence to Mannheim. It was annexed to Baden in 1802. Here was the celebrated tun, constructed in 1343, when it contained twenty-one pipes of wine. Another was made in

1664, which held 600 hogsheads. It was destroyed by the French in 1688; but a larger one, fabricated in 1751, which held 800 hogsheads, and was formerly kept full of the best Rhenish wine, is said to be mouldering in a damp vault, empty, since 1769.

HELDER POINT (Holland). The fort and the Dutch fleet lying in the Texel surrendered to the British under the duke of York and sir Ralph Abercromby, for the prince of Orange, after a conflict. 540 British were killed, 30 Aug. 1799. The place was left in Oct.; see Bergen.

HELENA, ST., an island in the South Atlantic Ocean, discovered by the Portuguese under Juan de Nova Castilla, on St. Helena's day, 21 May, 1502. The Dutch afterwards held it until 1600, when they were expelled by the English. The British East India Company settled here in 1651; and the island was alternately possessed by the English and Dutch until 1673, when Charles II., on 12 Dec., assigned it to the company once more. St. Helena was the place of Napoleon's captivity, 16 Oct. 1815; and here he died 5 May, 1821. His remains were removed in 1840, and interred at the Hôtel des Invalides, Paris; see France, 1840. The house and tomb have been purchased by the French government. The bishopric was founded in 1859. Governor, adm. sir Chas. Elliot, 1863-9; adm. Charles George Edward Patey, 1869.

HELIGOLAND, an island in the North Sea, taken from the Danes by the British, 5 Sept. 1807; made a depôt for British merchandise; confirmed to England by the treaty of Kiel, 14 Jan. 1814. In a naval engagement off Heligoland, between the Danes and the Austrians and Prussians, the allies were compelled to retire, 9 May, 1864. Governor, col. Henry F. B. Maxse, 1863.

HELIOGRAPHY (from helios, the sun), see

Photography.

HELIOMETER, an instrument for measuring the diameters of the sun, moon, planets, and stars, invented by Savary, in 1743; applied by M. Bouguer, in 1744. A fine heliometer, by Repsold of Hamburg, was set up at the Radcliffe observatory, Oct. 1849.

HELIOSCOPE (a peculiar sort of telescope, prepared for observing the sun so as not to affect the eye), was invented by Christopher Scheiner in 1625.

HELIOSTAT, an instrument invented to make a sunbeam stationary, or apparently stationary, invented by s'Gravesande about 1719, and greatly improved by Malus and others. One constructed by MM. Foucault and Duboscq was exhibited at Paris in Oct. 1862.

HELLAS, in Thessaly, the home of the Hellenes and the Greek race, which supplanted the Pelasgians from the 15th to the 11th century B.C., derived their name from Hellen, king of Phthiotis, about 1600 B.C. They separated into the Dorians, Eolians, Ionians, and Achaians. The present king of Greece is called "king of the Hellenes:" see Greece.

HELLESPONT (now the Strait of the Dardanelles) was named after Helle, daughter of Athamas, king of Thebes, who was drowned here. It is celebrated for the story of the loves of Hero of Sestus, and Leander of Abydos: Leander was drowned in a tempestuous night as he was swimming across the Hellespont (about one mile), and

Hero, in despair, threw herself into the sea, about 627 B.C. Lord Byron and lieut. Ekenhead also swam across, 3 May, 1810. See Xerxes.

HELL-FIRE CLUBS. Three of these associations were suppressed, 1721. They met at Somerset-house, and at houses in Westminster, and in Conduit-street.

HELMETS, among the Romans, were proeyes, and beaver to lower for eating; the Greek vided with a vizor of grated bars, to raise above the helmet was round, the Roman square. Richard I. of England wore a plain round helmet; but most of the English kings had crowns above their helmets. Alexander III. of Scotland, 1249, had a flat helmet, with a square grated vizor, and the helmet of Robert I. was surmounted by a crown, 1306. Gwillim.

Greek helein, to take; by others from Helos, a city HELOTS, captives, derived by some from the bute, 883 B.C. which the Spartans hated for refusing to pay triThe Spartans, it is said, ruined the city, reduced the Helots to slavery, and called all their slaves and prisoners of war Helote. The number of the Helots was much enlarged by the conquest of Messenia, 668 B.C.; and is considered

to have formed four-fifths of the inhabitants of

Sparta. In the Peloponnesian war the Helots behaved with uncommon bravery, and were rewarded with liberty, 431 B.C.; but the sudden disappearance of 2000 manumitted slaves was attributed to Lacedemonian treachery. Herodotus.

HELVETIAN REPUBLIC. Switzerland

having been conquered by the French in 1797, a republic was established April, 1798, with this title;

see Switzerland.

HELVETII, a Celto-Germanic people, who inhabited what is now called Switzerland. Invading Gaul, 61 B.C., they were defeated and massacred by Julius Cæsar, 58 B.C., near Geneva.

HEMP AND FLAX. Flax was first planted in England, when it was directed to be sown for fishits cultivation in 1783; and every exertion should ing-nets, 1532-3. "Bounties were paid to encourage be made by the government and legislature to accomplish such a national good. In 1785 there were imported from Russia, in British ships, 17,695 tons of hemp and fax." Sir John Sinclair. The importation of hemp and flax in 1870, 5,149,135 cwts. The cultivation of flax was revived at the dearth of cotton during the American civil war, 1861-4.

HENGESTDOWN (Cornwall). Here Egbert is said to have defeated the Danes and West Britons, 835.

HENOTICON (from the Greek henotes, unity), an edict of union for reconciling the Eutychians with the church, issued by the emperor Zeno at the instance of Acacius, patriarch of Constantinople, 482. It was zealously opposed by the popes of Rome, and was annulled by Justin I. in 518. The orthodox party triumphed, and many heretic bishops were expelled from their sees.

HEPTARCHY (or government of seven rulers) in England was gradually formed from 455, when Hengist became king of Kent. It terminated in 828, when Egbert became sole monarch of England. There were at first nine or ten Saxon kingdoms, but Middlesex soon ceased to exist, and Bernicia and Deira were generally governed by one ruler, as Northumbria; see Britain, and Octarchy.