ral M'Clellan and the Confederates under Lee. After his victory at Bull Run or Manassas, 30 Aug., Lee invaded Maryland, and was immediately followed by M'Clellan. . On 16 Sept. Lee was joined by Jackson, and at five o'clock next morning the conflict began. About 100,000 men were engaged, and the battle raged till night. The Federals were repeatedly repulsed; but eventually the Confederates retreated and repassed the Potomac on 18 and 19 Sept. The loss of the Federals was estimated at 12,469; of the Confederates, 14,000. ANTIGUA, a West Indian Island, discovered by Columbus in Nov. 1493; settled by the English in 1632; made a bishopric, 1842. Population in 1861, 36,412. Governor, Sir B. C. C. Píne, 1869. ANTILLES, or CARIBBEE ISLANDS, an early name of the West Indies (which see). ANTIMONY, a white brittle metal, compounds of which were early known. It was, and is still, used to blacken both men's and women's eyes in the east (2 Kings ix. 30, and Jeremiah iv. 30). Mixed with lead it forms printing type metal. Basil Valentine wrote on antimony about 1410. Priestley. ANTINOMIANS (from the Greek anti, against, and nomos, law), a name given by Luther (in 1538) to John Agricola, who is said to have held that it mattered not how wicked a man was if he had but faith." (Opposed to Rom. iii. 28, & vi. I, 2.) He retracted these doctrines in 1540. The Antinomians were condemned by the British parliament, 1648. ANTIOCH, now ANTIAKEH, Syria, built by Seleucus, 300 B.C. after the battle of Ipsus, 301, acquired the name "Queen of the East." Here the disciples were first called Christians, A.D. 42 (Acts xi. 20). Antioch was taken by the Persians, 540; by the Saracens about 638; recovered for the Eastern emperor, 966; lost again in 1086; retaken by the Crusaders in June, 1098, and held by them till June, 1268, when it was captured by the sultan of Egypt. It was taken from the Turks in the Syrian war, I Aug. 1832, by 1brahim Pacha, but restored at the peace. Antioch suffered much by an earthquake, and about 1600 persons were killed, 3 April, 1872. The ERA of Antioch is much used by the early Christian writers of Antioch and Alexandria; it placed the Creation 5492 years B.C. 31 councils were held at Antioch, 252-1161. ANTIPODES. Plato is said to be the first who thought it possible that antipodes existed (about 388 B.C.). Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, legate of pope Zachary, is said to have denounced a bishop as a heretic for maintaining this doctrine, A.D. 741. The antipodes of England lie to the south-east of New Zealand, near Antipodes Island. ANTI-POPES, rival popes elected at various times, especially by the French and Italian factions, from 1305 to 1439. In the article Popes, the Antipopes are printed in italics. ANTIQUARIES. A college of antiquaries is said to have existed in Ireland, 700 B.C. The annual International Congress of Prehistoric Archæology, originated at La Spezzia in 1865; annual meetings have been held since at Paris, Norwich, &c. A society was founded by archbishop Parker, Camden, her death ensued, and her successor, James I., was far from favouring the design. The Society of Antiquaries revived, 1707; received its charter of incorporation from George II., 1751; and apartments in Somerset-house granted to it in 1777Its Memoirs, entitled " Archæologia," first published in 1770; present president, earl Stanhope, elected, 1846. British Archæological Association founded Dec. 1843Archæological Institute of Great Britain formed by a seceding part of the Association, 1845. Society of Antiquaries of Edinburgh founded in 1780. Since 1845 many county archæological societies have been formed in the United Kingdom. The Society of Antiquaries of France (1814) began in 1805 as the Celtic Academy. ANTI-TRINITARIANS. Theodotus of Byzantium, at the close of the 2nd century, is supposed to have been the first who advocated the simple humanity of Jesus. This doctrine, advocated by Arius about 318, spread widely after the Reformiation, when it was adopted by Lælius and Faustus Socinus. Bayle. See Arians, Socinians, Uni tarians. ANTIUM, maritime city of Latium, now Porto d'Anzio, near Rome, after a long struggle for independence, became a Roman colony, at the end of the It is mentioned by Horace, and was a favourite retreat of the emperors great Latin war, 340-338 B.C. and wealthy Romans, who erected many villas in its vicinity. The treasures deposited in the temple his war with Antony, 41 B.C. of Fortune here were taken by Octavius Cæsar during ANTONINUS' WALL, see Roman Walls. ANTWERP (French, Anvers), the principal port of Belgium, is mentioned in history in 517. It was a small republic in the 11th century, and it was the first commercial city in Europe till the wars of the 16th and 17th centuries. APATITE, mineral phosphate of lime. About 1856 it began to be largely employed as manure. It is abundant in Norway, and in Sombrero, a small West India Island. Other apologies were written by the early fathers of the Church. APOSTLES (Greek, apostolos, one sent forth). Twelve were appointed by Christ, A.D. 31; viz. APOCALYPSE or REVELATION, written by Simon Peter and Andrew (brothers), James and St. John in the isle of Patmos about A.D. 95.* APOCRYPHA. In the preface to the Apocrypha it is said, "These books are neyther found in the Hebrue nor in the Chalde." Bible, 1539. The history of the Apocrypha ends 135 B.C. The books were not in the Jewish canon, were rejected at the council of Laodicea about A.D. 366, but were received as canonical by the Roman Catholic church at the council of Trent on 8 April, 1546. Parts of the Apocrypha were admitted to be read as lessons by the church of England, by the 6th article, 1563. Many of these were excluded by the act passed 1871. 1 Esdras 2 Esdras Tobit Judith. Esther Wisdom of Solomon Song of the Three Children from about B.C. 623-445 734-678 656 $to B. C. 300 or 180 * John (sons of Zebedee), Philip, Nathanael (or Bartholomew), Matthew (or Levi), Thomas, James the Less (son of Alphæus), Simon the Canaanite and Jude or Thaddeus (brothers), and Judas Iscariot. Matthias was elected in the room of Judas Iscariot, A.D. 33 (Acts i.); and Paul and Barnabas were appointed by the Holy Spirit, A.D. 45 (Acts xiii. 2). APOSTLES' CREED, erroneously attributed to the apostles, is mentioned as the Roman creed by Ruffinus, 390. Irenæus, bishop of Lyons (177), gives a creed resembling it. Its repetition in public worship was ordained in the Greek church at Antioch, and in the Roman church in the 11th century, whence it passed to the church of England. APOSTOLICI, a sect, at the end of the 2nd century, which renounced marriage, wine, flesh, &c. A second sect, founded by Segarelli about 1261, wandered about, clothed in white, with long beard, dishevelled hair, and bare heads, accompanied by women called spiritual sisters, preaching against the growing corruption of the church of Rome, and 676 predicting its downfall. They renounced baptism, about 323-135 the mass, purgatory, &c., and by their enemies from about 187-161 were accused of gross licentiousness. Segarelli was There are also Apocryphal writings in connection with burnt alive at Parma in 1300, and his followers the New Testament. were dispersed in 1307, and extirpated about 1404. Bel and the Dragon Prayer of Manasses 1 Maccabees 2 Maccabees B. C. APOLLINARISTS, followers of Apollinaris, a reader in the church of Laodicea, who taught (366) that the divinity of Christ was instead of a soul to him; that his flesh was pre-existent to his appearance upon earth, and was sent down from heaven, and conveyed through the Virgin; that there were two sons, one born of God, the other of the Virgin, &c. These opinions were condemned by the council of Constantinople, 381. APOLLO, the god of the fine arts, medicine, music, poetry, and eloquence, had many temples and statues, particularly in Greece and Italy. His most splendid temple at Delphi was built 1263 B.C.; see Delphi. His temple at Daphne, built 434 B.C., during a period in which pestilence raged, was burnt A.D. 362, and the Christians were accused of the crime. Lenglet. The statue of Apollo Belvedere, discovered in the remains of Antium, in Italy, in 1503, was purchased by pope Julius II., who placed it in the Vatican. APOLLONICON, an elaborate musical instrument, constructed on the principle of the organ, was invented by Messrs. Flight and Robson, of St. Martin's lane, Westminster, and exhibited by them first in 1817. Timbs. APOLOGIES FOR CHRISTIANITY were addressed by Justin Martyr to the emperor Antoninus Pius about 139, and to the Roman senate about 164. * Some ascribe the authorship to Cerinthus, the heretic, and others to John, the presbyter, of Ephesus. In the first centuries many churches disowned it, and in the 4th century it was excluded from the sacred canon by the council of Laodicea, but was again received by other councils, and confirmed by that of Trent, held in 1545, et seq. Although the book has been rejected by Luther, Michaelis, and others, and its authority questioned in all ages, from the time of Justin Martyr (who wrote his first Apology for the Christians in A.D. 139), yet its canonical authority is still almost universally acknowledged. APPEAL or ASSIZE OF BATTLE. By the old law of England, a man charged with murder might fight with the appellant, thereby to make proof of his guilt or innocence. In 1817, a young violated and murdered by Abraham Thornton, who, maid, Mary Ashford, was believed to have been in an appeal, claimed his right by his wager of battle, which the court allowed; but the appellant (the brother of the maid) refused the challenge, and the accused escaped, 16 April, 1818. This law was immediately afterwards struck off the statute-book, by 59 Geo. III. (1819). APPEALS. In the time of Alfred (869-901), appeals lay from courts of justice to the king in council; but being soon overwhelmed with appears from all parts of England, he framed the body of laws which long served as the basis of English jurisprudence. The house of lords is the highest court of appeal in civil causes. Courts of appeal at the Exchequer Chamber, in error from the judgments of the superior and criminal courts, were regulated by statutes in 1830 and 1848. Appeals from English tribunals to the pope were first introduced about 1151, were long vainly opposed, and were abolished by Henry VIII. 1534; restored by Mary, 1554; again abolished by Elizabeth, 1559. A proposition for establishing an imperial court of appeal submitted to the house of lords by the lord chancellor Hatherley, 15 April; was referred to a select committee, 30 April, 1872. A similar proposition by lord chancellor Selborne, 13 Feb. 1873. See Privy Council, and Justices, Lord. APPENZELL, a Swiss canton, threw off the supremacy of the abbots of St. Gall early in the 15th century, and became the thirteenth member of the Swiss confederation, 1513. APPIAN WAY, a Roman road, made by Appius Claudius Cæcus, while censor, 312 B.C. APPLES. Several kinds are indigenous to England; but those in general use have been brought at various times from the continent. Richard Harris, fruiterer to Henry VIII., is said to have planted a great number of the orchards in Kent, and lord Scudamore, ambassador to France in the reign of Charles I., planted many of those in Herefordshire. Ray reckons 78 varieties of apples in his day (1688). In 1866 there were 1500 varieties in the collection of the Royal Horticultural Society, many not worth cultivation. APPORTIONMENT ACT (for rents) passed I Aug. 1870. APPRAISERS. The valuation of goods for another was an early business in England; and so early as 1283, by the statute of merchants, or of Acton Burnel, it was enacted that if they valued the goods of parties too high, the appraisers should take them at such price as they have limited." In 1845 their annual licence was raised from 108. to 408. APPRENTICES. Those of London were obliged to wear blue cloaks in summer, and blue gowns in winter, in the reign of queen Elizabeth, 1558. Ten pounds was then a great apprentice fee. From twenty to one hundred pounds were given in the reign of James I. Stow's Survey. The apprentice tax enacted 43 Geo. III. 1802. The term of seven years, not to expire till the apprentice was 24 years old, required by the statute of Elizabeth (1563), was abolished in 1814. An act for the protection of apprentices, &c., was passed in 1851. The apprentices of London have been at times very riotous; they rose into insurrection against foreigners on Evil May-day (which see). APPROPRIATION CLAUSE, of the Irish Tithe Bill of 1835, brought forward by lord John Russell, whereby any surplus revenue that might accrue by the working of the act was to be appropriated for the education of all classes of the people. The principle was adopted by the commons, but rejected by the lords in 1835 and 1836, and was abandoned. APPROPRIATIONS (property taken from the church), began in the time of William I. The parochial clergy, then commonly Saxons, were impoverished by the bishops and higher clergy (generally Normans) to enrich the monasteries possessed by the conqueror's friends. Where the tithes were so appropriated, the vicar had only such a competency as the bishop or superior thought fit to allow. Pope Alexander IV. complained of this as the bane of religion, the destruction of the church, and a poison that had infected the whole nation. Lay appropriations began after the dissolution of the monasteries, 1536. APRICOT, Prunus Armeniaca, from Asia Minor, said to have been first planted in England about 1540, by the gardener of Henry VIII. APRIL, the fourth month of our year, the second of the ancient Romans. APTERYX (wingless), a bird, a native of New Zealand, first brought to this country in 1813, and deposited in the collection of the earl of Derby. Fossil specimens of a gigantic species of this bird (named Dinornis) were discovered in New Zealand by Mr. Walter Mantell in 1843 and since. APULIA, a province in S.E. Italy. The people favoured Hannibal, and were severely punished by the Romans at his retreat, 207 B.C. Apulia was conquered by the Normans, whose leader Guiscard received the title of duke of Apulia from pope Nicholas II. in 1059. After many changes of masters, it was absorbed into the kingdom of Naples, in 1265. AQUARII, a sect said to have been founded by Tatian in the 2nd century, who forebore the use of wine even in the sacrament; during persecution they met secretly at night. For this they were censured by Cyprian (martyred, 258). AQUARIUM or AQUAVIVARIUM, a vessel containing water (marine or fresh) in which animals and plants may co-exist, mutually supporting each other; snails being introduced as scavengers. In 1849, Mr. N. B. Ward succeeded in growing seaweeds in artificial sea-water; in 1850, Mr. R. Warington demonstrated the conditions necessary for the growth of animals and plants in jars of water; and in 1853 the glass tanks in the Zoological Gardens, Regent's Park, were set up by Mr D. Mitchell. In 1854, Mr. Gosse published "The Aquarium." Mr. W. Alford Lloyd, late of Portlandroad, London, by his enterprise in collecting specimens did much to increase the value and interest of aquaria. The great aquarium (50 yards long and 12 wide) at the Jardin d'Acclimatation at Paris, was constructed under his direction in 1860. also constructed the aquarium at Hamburg. That at Brighton was inaugurated by prince Arthur, 30 March, and publicly opened by the mayor, 10 Aug. 1872. The great aquarium at the Crystal Palace was opened, Jan. 1872. AQUATINT, see Engraving. Hé AQUEDUCT, an artificial watercourse on an inclined plane. Appius Claudius advised and conAppian way, about 312 B.C. There are now some structed the first Roman aqueduct, as well as the remarkable aqueducts in Europe: that at Lisbon is of great extent and beauty; that at Segovia has long, and of immense height, with 242 arches in 129 arches; and that at Versailles is three miles three stories. The stupendous aqueduct on the Ellesmere canal, in England (1007 feet in length, and 126 feet high) was completed by T. Telford, and opened 26 Dec. 1805. The Lisbon aqueduct was completed in 1738, and the Croton aqueduct, near New York, was constructed between 1837 and 1842. The aqueduct to supply Marseilles with water was commenced in 1830. An aqueduct to supply London with water from the Welsh lakes was proposed by Mr. J. F'. Bateman in 1865. AQUILA, S. Italy. Near here the Arragonese under the condottiere Braccio Forte-Braccio were defeated by the allied Papal, Neapolitan, and Milanese army under Jacob Caldora, 2 June, 1424. Braccio, a wounded prisoner, refused to take food, and died, 5 June. AQUILEIA (Istria), made a Roman colony about 180 B. C. and fortified A. D. 168. Constantine II. was slain in a battle with Constans, fought at Aquileia towards the close of March 340. Maximus defeated and slain by Theodosius, near Aquileia, 28 July, 388. Theodosius defeated Eugenius and Arbogastes, the Gaul, near Aquileia, and remained sole emperor, 6 Sept. 394. Eugenius was put to death, and Arbogastes died by his own hand, mortified by his overthrow. St. Ambrose held a synod here in 381. In 452 Aquileia was almost totally destroyed by Attila the Hun, and near it in 489 Theodoric and the Ostrogoths totally defeated Odoacer, the king of Italy. AQUITAINE, the Roman province Aquitania (S. W. France), conquered by the Romans 28 B. C.; by the Visgoths, A. D. 418; taken from them by Clovis in 507. Henry II. of England obtained it with his wife Eleanor, 1152. It was erected into a principality for Edward the Black Prince in 1362; but was annexed to France in 1370. The title of duke of Aquitaine was taken by the crown of England on the conquest of this duchy by Henry V. in 1418. The province was lost in the reign of Henry VI. ARABIA (W. Asia). The terms Petrea (stony), Feliz (happy), and Deserta are said to have been applied to its divisions by Ptolemy, about A. D. 140. The Arabs claim descent from Ishmael, the eldest son of Abraham, born 1910 B. C. Gen. xvi. Arabia was unsuccessfully invaded by Gallus, the Roman governor of Egypt, 24 B. C. In A. D. 622, the Arabians under the name of Saracens, followers of Mahomet (born at Mecca, 570), their general and prophet, commenced their course of conquest; see Mahometanism. Arabia was conquered by the Ottomans 1518-39. The Arabs greatly favoured literature and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, and chemistry. The Koran was written in Arabic (622-632). The Bible was printed in Arabic in 1671. See Wahabees. ARABIAN NIGHTS' ENTERTAINMENTS (or 1001 Tales) were translated into French by Galland, and published in 1704; but their authenticity was not acknowledged till many years after. The best English translation from the Arabic is that of Mr. E. W. Lane, published in 1839, with valuable notes and beautiful illustrations. ARANJUEZ (Central Spain), contains a fine royal palace, at which several important treaties were concluded. On 17 March, 1808, an insurrection broke out here against Charles IV. and his favourite, Godoy, the prince of peace. The former was compelled to abdicate in favour of his son, Ferdinand VII., 19 March. ARAUCANIA, a province in S. America. Its inhabitants maintained almost unceasing war with the Spaniards from 1537 to 1773, when their independence was recognised. They are now nominally subject to Chili. ARAUSIO (now ORANGE), S. E. France. Through the jealousy of the Roman proconsul Q. Servilius Caepio, who would not wait for the arrival of the army of the consul C. Manlius, both were defeated here by the Cimbri with much slaughter, 105 B. c. ARBELA. The third and decisive battle between Alexander the Great and Darius Codomanus decided the fate of Persia, 1 Oct. 331 B.C., on a plain in Assyria, between Arbela and Gaugamela. The army of Darius consisted of 1,000,000 foot and 40,000 horse; the Macedonian army amounted to only 40,000 foot and 7000 horse. Arrian. The gold and silver found in the cities of Susa, Persepolis, and Babylon, which fell to Alexander from this victory, amounted to thirty millions sterling; and the jewels and other precious spoil, belonging to Darius, sufficed to load 20,000 mules and 5000 camels. Plutarch. ARBITRATION. Submission to arbitration was authorised and made equivalent in force to the decision of a jury, by 9 & 10 Will. III. (1698). Submissions to arbitration may be made rules of any court of law or equity, and arbitrators may compel the attendance of witnesses, 3 & 4 Will. IV. c. 42 (1833); see Ouzel Galley. The Common Law Procedure Act (1854) authorises the judges of superior courts to order compulsory arbitration; and, by an act passed in 1859, railway companies may settle disputes with each other by arbitration. The Arbitration (Masters and Workmen) Act was passed 6 Aug. 1872. See Prud'hommes. ARBUTUS. The Arbutus Andrachne, oriental strawberry-tree, was brought to England from the Levant about 1724. ARCADES, or walks arched over. The principal in London are the Burlington-arcade, opened 20 March, 1819; and the Lowther-arcade, Strand, opened 1831; see Strand, and Exeter Change. The Royal-arcade, Dublin, opened June, 1820, was burnt to the ground, 25 April, 1837. ARCADIA, in the centre of the Peloponnesus, Greece, named after Arcas, a king. The Arcadians regarded their nation as the most ancient of Greece, and older than the moon (Proselēni, which word ARABIC FIGURES, (1, 2, 3, &c.) see Arith- Döderlein conjectures to mean Pre-Hellenic). metic. ARABICI, a sect which sprung up in Arabia, about 207, whose distinguishing tenet was, that the soul dies with the body, and will rise again with it. ARAGON, part of the Roman Tarraconensis, a kingdom, N.E. Spain, was conquered by the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans about 200 B. C. It became an independent monarchy in A. D. 1035; see Spain. ARAM, the ancient name of Syria (which see). Pelasgus is said to have taught them to feed on former food; for which they honoured him as a acorns, as being more nutritious than herbs, their god, 1521 B.C. Arcadia had twenty-five kings, whose history is altogether fabulous. ARCADIANS, an ultra-conservative French political club, composed of a section of the majority in the chambers, and opposed to liberal measures, even when emanating from the emperor (such as the new press law). It derived its name from Rue de l'Arcade, where its meetings were held: Feb. 1868. ARCH. It appears in early Egyptian and Assyrian architecture. The oldest arch in Europe is probably in the Cloaca Maxima, at Rome, constructed under the early kings, about 588 B.C. The Chinese bridges, which are very ancient, are of great magnitude, and are built with stone arches similar to those that have been considered a Roman invention. The TRIUMPHAL arches of the Romans formed a leading feature in their architecture. The arch of Titus (A.D. 80), that of Trajan (114), and that of Constantine, (312), were magnificent. The arches in our parks in London were erected about 1828. The Marble Arch, which formerly stood before Buckingham Palace (whence it was removed to Cumberland-gate, Hyde Park, in 1851) was modelled from the arch of Constantine; see Hyde Park. to those places. The word is first found in the Apology against the Arians by Athanasius, who died 373. The Eastern archbishops have since been styled patriarchs. Riddle. Before the Saxons came to England, there were three archbishops: London, York, and Caerleon-upon-Usk ; but soon after St. Augustin settled the metropolitan see at Canterbury, 602; see Canterbury. York continued archiepiscopal; but London and Caerleon lost the dignity; see St. David's. The bishoprics in Scotland were under the jurisdiction of the archbishop of York until the erection of the archiepiscopal sees of St. Andrew's and Glasgow in 1470 and 1491; these last were discontinued at the Revolution; see Glasgow and St. Andrew's. The bishop of Moray, &c., is now (1873) styled Primus. ARCHDEACON, a name early given to the first or eldest deacon, who attended on the bishop ARCHEOLOGY, the science of antiquities; without any power; but since the council of Nice, see Antiquaries. his function has become a dignity above a priest. The appointment in these countries is referred to the eighth century. There are seventy-one archdeacons in England (1868), and thirty-three in Ireland. The archdeacon's court is the lowest in ecclesiastical polity; an appeal lies from it to the consistorial court, by 24 Henry VIII. (1532). ARCHEOPTERYX (ancient bird); the name given to the earliest known remains of a bird, found in the lithographic slate of Solenhofen, by Herman von Meyer and Dr. Häberlern in 1861. Its structure approximated more to that of a reptile than that of modern birds does. It was described by Owen in 1863. ARCHANGEL (N. Russia), a city, is thus named from a monastery founded here, and dedicated to St. Michael in 1584. The passage to Archangel was discovered by the English navigator Richard Chancellor in 1553, and it was the only seaport of Russia till the formation of the docks at Cronstadt, and foundation of St. Petersburg in 1703. The dreadful fire here, by which the cathedral and upwards of 3000 houses were destroyed, occurred in June, 1793. ARCHBISHOP (Greek archiepiscopos), a title given in the 4th and 5th centuries to the bishops of chief cities, such as Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople, who presided over the other metropolitans and bishops in the districts attached The bridge of Chester, whose span is 200 feet, was commenced in 1829. The central arch of London Bridge is 152 feet; and the three cast iron arches of Southwark Bridge, which rest on massive stone piers and abutments are, the two side ones 210 feet each, and the centre 240 feet: thus the centre arch exceeds the admired bridge of Sunderland by four feet in the span, and the long-famed Rialto at Venice, by 167 feet; see Bridges. ARCHERY is ascribed to Apollo, who communicated it to the Cretans. Ishmael "became an archer" (Gen. xxi. 20), B.C. 1892 The Philistine archers overcame Saul (1 Sam. xxxi. 3). 1056 (2 Sam. i. 18) 1055 David commanded the use of the bow to be taught Aster of Amphipolis, having been slighted by Philip, king of Macedon, at the siege of Methone, shot an arrow, on which was writtten "Aimed at Philip's right eye," which put it out; Philip drew back the arrow with these words: "if Philip take the town, Aster shall be hanged," and kept his word 353 Archery introduced into England previous to A.D. 440 Harold and his two brothers were killed by arrows shot from the cross-bows of the Norman soldiers at the battle of Hastings Richard I. revived archery in England in 1190, and was himself killed by an arrow The victories of Crecy (1346), Poietiers (1356), and Agincourt (1415), were won chiefly by archers. Four thousand archers of the king surrounded the houses of Parliament ready to shoot; pacified by the king, 21 Richard II. (Stow.) 1066 · 1199 1397 The citizens of London formed into companies of archers in the reign of Edward III.; and into a corporate body by the style of "The Fraternity of St. George," 29 Henry VIII. 1538 Roger Ascham's Toxophilus, the School of Shooting,” published . 1571 |