The long bow was six feet long, and the arrow three feet the usual range from 300 to 500 yards. Robin Hood is said to have shot from 600 to 800 yards. The cross-bow was fixed to a stock, and discharged with a trigger. See Artillery Company, Toxophilites, &c. ARCHES, COURT OF, the most ancient consistory court, chiefly a court of appeal from inferior jurisdictions within the province of Canterbury; it derives its name from the church of St. Mary-leBow (Sancta Maria de Arcubus), London, where it was formerly held, and whose top is raised on stone pillars built archwise. Cowell. Appeals from this court lie to the judicial committee of the privy council, by statute, 1832. The judge, Dr. Stephen Lushington, (appointed in 1828) resigned I July, 1867; succeeded by sir Robert J. Phillimore. ARCHITECTURE (from the Greek architekton, chief artificer). The five great orders are, -the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian (Greek);-the Tuscan and Composite (Roman). Gothic began to prevail in the 9th century. See the Orders and Gothic. The Pyramids of Egypt, begun about B.C. 1500 about 900 Temple of Jupiter and Cloaca Maxima, at Rome Birs Nimroud, in Assyria The Doric order begins Doric Temple at Egina 616 about 500-420 335 335 480-320 450-420 438 A.D. 13 70 117 284 330-900 532 500-800 ARCOLA (Lombardy), the site of battles between the French under Bonaparte, and the Austrians under field-marshal Alvinzi, fought 14-17 Nov. 1796. The Austrians lost 18,000 men in killed, wounded, and prisoners, four flags and eighteen guns. The French lost about 15,000, and became masters of Italy. In one contest Bonaparte, in most imminent danger, was rescued by the impetuosity of his troops. ARCOT (East Indies). This city (founded 1716) was taken by colonel Clive, 31 Aug. 1751; was retaken, 1758, but again surrendered to colonel Coote, 10 Feb. 1760; besieged and taken by Hyder Ali, when the British under colonel Baillie suffered severe defeat, 31 Oct. 1780. Arcot has been subject to Great Britain since 1801; see India. ARCTIC EXPEDITIONS, see North West Passage, and Franklin's Expedition. ARDAGH, an ancient prelacy in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, who made his nephew, Mell, the first bishop, 454. This see, held with Kilmore since 1742, was held in commendam with Tuam (which see). It was united with Kilmore in 1839, and with Elphin in 1841. ARDFERT AND AGHADOE, bishoprics in Ireland long united; the former was called the bishopric of Kerry; Ert presided in the 5th century. William Fuller, appointed in 1663, became bishop of Limerick in 1667, since when Ardfert and Aghadoe have been united to that prelacy. Near the cathedral an anchorite tower, 120 feet high, the loftiest and finest in the kingdom, suddenly fell, 1770. ARDOCH, see Grampian. ARDRES, see Field of Cloth of Gold. AREIOPAGUS or AREOPAGUS, a Greek tribunal, said to have heard causes in the dark, 602 637 because the judges should be blind to all but facts, about 1171 instituted at Athens about 1507 B.C.; also ascribed 1450-1626 to Cecrops, 1556. The name is derived from the 1675-1710 Greek Areios pagos, the hill of Mars, through the tradition that Mars was the first who was tried there for the murder of Halirrhotius, who had violated his daughter Alcippe. The powers of this court were enlarged by Solon, about 594 B.C., and 1324-1405 diminished by Pericles, 461 B.C. Paul preached on 1474-1564 Mars' hill A.D. 52. (Acts xvii.) Born. Died. B.C. 27 AREZZO, near the ancient Arretium or Areti. 1728-1794 num, an Etrurian city, which made peace with Rome for 30 years, 308 B.C., was besieged by the Galli Senones, about 283 B.C., who defeated the Roman army Metellus sent to its relief-a disgrace avenged signally by Dolabella. Arezzo was an ancient bishopric: the cathedral founded in 1277. It is renowned as the birthplace of Mæcenas, Petrarch, Vasari, and other eminent men. Michael Angelo was born in the vicinity. An Architectural Club was formed in 1791. An Architectural Society existed in London in 1808. The ROYAL INSTITUTE OF BRITISH ARCHITECTS was founded in 1834Earl de Grey, president, 1835-61. The Architectural Society, established in 1831, was united to the Institute in 1842. The ARCHITECTURAL ASSOCIATION began about 1846. The ARCHITECTURAL MUSEUM, Westminster, opened, 21 July, 1869. ARCHONS. When royalty was abolished at Athens, in memory of king Codrus, killed in battle, 1044 or 1068 B.C., the executive government was vested in elective magistrates called archons, whose office continued for life. Medon, eldest son of Codrus, was the first archon. The office was limited to ten years, 752 B.C., and to one year 683 B.C. ARGAUM, in the Deccan, India, where sir Arthur Wellesley, on 29th Nov. 1803, thoroughly defeated and subjugated the rajah of Berar and the Mahratta chief Scindiah. ARGENTARIA, Alsace (now COLMAR, N. E. France), where the Roman emperor Gratian totally defeated the Alemanni, and secured the peace of Gaul, May, 378. ARGENTINE (or LA PLATA), CONFEDERATION, S. America, 14 provinces (Buenos Ayres, one). This country was discovered by the Spaniards in 1515, settled by them in 1553, and formed part of the vice-royalty of Peru till 1778, when it became that of Rio de la Plata. It joined the insurrection in 1811, and became independent in 1816. It was at war with Brazil from 1826 to 1828, for the possession of Uruguay, which became independent as Monte-Video; and at war with France from 1838-40.- Population, in 1869, 1,877,490. See Buenos Ayres. Buenos Ayres seceded in 1853; reunited. 1859 ARGONAUTIC EXPEDITION, 1263 B.C. (1225, Clinton), said to have been undertaken by Jason, to avenge the death of his kinsman Phryxus, and to recover the treasures seized by his murderer, Eetes, king of Colchis. The ship in which Phryxus had sailed to Colchis having been adorned with the figure of a ram, led to the fiction that the journey was to recover the golden fleece. This is the first naval expedition on record. Many kings and heroes accompanied Jason, whose ship was called Argo, from its builder. ARGOS, the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded either by Inachus, 1856 B.C., or his son, Phoroneus, 1807, received its name from Argus, the fourth of the Inachidæ, 1711 B.C. ARGYLE (W. Scotland), bishopric of, founded about 1200, Evaldus being the first bishop; the diocese, previously united with Dunkeld, ended 1688. Argyle and the Isles is a post-revolution bishopric, 1847; see Bishoprics. ARIAN or ARYAN (in Sanskrit signifying noble, warlike), a term now frequently applied to the hypothetical Indo-Germanic family of nations, including the Greek, Roman, and Teutonic races. ARIANS, followers of Arius of Alexandria, who preached against the divinity of Christ, about 315, and died in 336. The controversy was taken up by Constantine, who presided at the council of Nice, June to Aug. 325, when the Arians were condemned; but their doctrine long prevailed. It was favoured by Constantius II. 341; and carried into Africa by the Vandals in the 5th century, and into Asia by the Goths. Servetus published his treatise against the Trinity, 1531, and was burnt, 1553. Leggatt, an Arian, was burnt at Smithfield in 1614; see Athanasian Creed, Socinians, and Unitarians. inundated by waves of the sea, 13 Aug. 1868. ARICA, Peru, destroyed by an earthquake, and ARIKERA, near Seringapatam. Here lord Cornwallis defeated Tippoo Sahib, 15 May, 1791. ARISTOTELIAN PHILOSOPHY: the most comprehensive ever devised by man. Aristotle was born at Stagyra (hence termed the Stagyrite), 384 B.C.; was a pupil of Plato from 364 to 347: became preceptor of Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon, in 342; and died in 322. He divided the circle of knowledge into metaphysics and logic, physics (including part of the science of mind), and ethics. His philosophy was too much exalted by the schoolmen during the middle ages, and too much depreciated after the reformation. His works on natural science contain a vast collection of facts and an extraordinary mixture of sound and chimerical opinions. To him is attributed the assertion that nature abhors a vacuum, an opinion now maintained by eminent modern philosophers. ARITHMETIC is said to have been introduced from Egypt into Greece by Thales, about 600 B.C. The Chinese used the abacus, or swanpan, at an early period. It is asserted that the ancient Hindus adopted a system having ten as a basis. The oldest treatise upon arithmetic is by Euclid (7th, 8th, and 9th books of his Elements), about The kingdom divided by the brothers Acrisius and 1344 (1313 Cl.) 1425 1425 1313 nus seizes Argos 1102 Pheidon's prosperous rule War with Sparta: combat of 300 on each side. The Argives fine Sicyon and Ægina for helping their enemy, Cleomenes of Sparta. 770-730 547 514 Sparta becomes superior to Argos 495-490 Themistocles an exile at Argos. 471 The Argives destroy Mycena and regain their superiority 1253 Peloponnesian war-Argos long neutral, joins 468 The date in Caxton's Mirrour of the World, Arabie characters, is . Arithmetic of decimals invented 1480 1482 Athens 420 The aristocratical party makes peace with Sparta, and overthrows the democracy John Sherwood, bishop of Durham's Ludus ArithmoMachine, printed at Rome 417 A reaction-alliance with Athens resumed Pyrrhus of Macedon besieging Argos, slain 395 272 First work printed in England on arithmetic (de Arte Supputandi) was by Tonstall, bishop of Durham 1522 ARIZONA, a territory of the United States, originally part of New Mexico, was organised 24 Feb. 1863; capital, Tucson. It was colonised by the Jesuits in the 17th century. ARK. Mount Ararat is venerated by the Armenians, from a belief of its being the place on which Noah's ark rested, after the universal deluge, 2347 B.C.; see Gen. vi. vii. Some assert Apamea, in Phrygia, to be the spot; and medals have been struck there with a chest on the waters, and the letters NOE, and two doves; this place is 300 miles west of Ararat. The Ark of the Covenant, made by Moses to contain the two tables of the law, 1491 B.C. (Exod. xxv.), was placed in Solomon's temple, 1004 B.C. (1 Kings viii). ARKADI, a Greek blockade-runner during the Cretan insurrection, was destroyed by the Turkish vessel Izeddin, off Crete, 19 Aug. 1867, after at least 22 successful voyages. ARKANSAS, originally part of Louisiana, ceded by Spain to France, 1763; and purchased by the United States in 1803, was made a territory, 1819; and a state, 1836; seceded from the union 6 May, 1861; conquered, 1865. Several battles were fought in this state in 1862. Capital, Little Rock. ARKLOW (in Wicklow), where a battle was fought between the insurgent Irish, amounting to 31,000, and a small regular force of British, which signally defeated them, 10 June, 1798. The town was nearly destroyed by the insurgents in May previous. Native gold was discovered in Arklow, in Sept. 1795. Phil. Trans. vol. 86. ARLES (Arelatum, from the Celtic Ar-lait, near the waters), S. France (said to have been founded 2000 B.C.), a powerful Roman city, was made capital of the kingdom of Provence by Boson in 879 A.D.; and of the kingdom of Arles or Transjurane Burgundy by Rodolph II. in 933. He was succeeded by Conrad I. 937; and by Rodolph III. 993; who at his death, 1032, transmitted his kingdom to the emperor Conrad II. After various changes it was annexed to France in 1486. Many councils (314-1275) were held at Arles; the most celebrated in 314, when British bishops were present. ARMADA, THE INVINCIBLE, collected and equipped by Philip II. king of Spain, for the subjugation of England. The following particulars are taken from Morant's historical account (accompanying Pine's engravings of the tapestries formerly in the house of lords), printed 1739. It consisted of 132 ships (besides caravels), 3165 1587 19 May, 1588 Re-collected, entered the Channel off Cornwall, 19 July, The remainder retreat northward to Spain, suffering much loss by severe storms, Aug. and Sept. Computed Spanish loss--35 ships; 13,000 men. The queen attended a most solemn thanksgiving at St. Paul's . 24 Nov. ARMAGH, N. Ireland, of which it was the metropolis from the 5th to the 9th century, the seat of the first ecclesiastical dignity in Ireland, founded by St. Patrick, its first bishop, about 444, and said to have built the first cathedral, 450. Six saints of the Roman calendar have been bishops of this see. In the king's book, by an extent taken 15 James I., it is valued at 400l. sterling a year; and until lately was estimated at 15,000l. per annum. The see was re-constituted (see Pallium) in 1151. Beatson. Armagh was ravaged by the Danes on Easter-day, 852, and by O'Neil in 1564. ARMAGNACS, a political party in France, followers of the duke of Orleans, murdered by the Burgundians, 23 Nov. 1407, derived their name from his father-in-law, the count of Armagnac. About 3500 of this party were massacred at Paris in June, 1418, by their opponents, the followers of the duke of Burgundy. ARMED NEUTRALITY, the confederacy against England, formed by Russia, Sweden, and Denmark, 1780; ended, 1781; renewed, and a treaty ratified in order to cause their flags to be respected by the belligerent powers, 16 Dec. 1800. The principle that neutral flags protect neutral bottoms being contrary to the maritime system of England, the British cabinet remonstrated, war ensued, and Nelson and Parker destroyed the fleet of Denmark before Copenhagen, 2 April, 1801. This event and the murder of the emperor Paul of Russia led to the dissolution of the Armed Neutrality. Arme ARMENIA, Asia Minor. Here Noah is said to have resided when he left the ark, 2347 B C. nia, after forming part of the Assyrian, Median, and Persian empires, became subject to the Greek kings of Syria, after the defeat of Antiochus the Great, 190 B.C. The Romans established the kingdoms of Armenia Major and Minor, but their influence over them was frequently interrupted by the aggressions of the Parthians. In all their political troubles the Armenians have maintained the profession of Christianity, and their church is governed by patriarchs, not subject to Rome. Since 1715 an Armenian convent has existed at Venice, where books on all subjects are printed in the Armenian language. (See Syria and Russo-Turkish War.) ARMENIAN ERA, commenced on 9 July, 552; the ecclesiastical year on II Aug. To reduce this last to our time, add 551 years and 221 days; and in leap years subtract one day from 1 March to 10 Aug. The Armenians used the old Julian style and months in their correspondence with Europeans. ARMILLARY SPHERE, an astronomical instrument composed of brass circles disposed in such a manner that the greater and lesser circles of the sphere may be seen in their natural position and motion. It is said to have been invented by Eratosthenes, about 255 B.C.; and was employed by Tycho Brahe and others. ARMINIANS, or REMONSTRANTS, derive their former name from James Arminius (or Harmensen), a Protestant divine of Leyden, Holland (died 19 Oct. 1609); the latter name from his followers having presented a Remonstrance to the states-general in 1610. They separated from the Calvinists, objecting to their views respecting predestination, &c. Their doctrines were condemned in 1619, at the synod of Dort (which see); they were exiled till 1625. The Calvinists were sometimes styled Gomarists, from Gomar, the chief opponent to Arminius. James I. and Charles I. favoured the Arminian doctrine. ARMORIAL BEARINGS became hereditary in families at the close of the 12th century. They were employed by the crusaders, 1100. The lines to denote colours in arms, by their direction or intersection, were invented by Columbière in 1639. The armorial bearings of the English sovereigns are given under the article England. Armorial bearings were taxed in 1798, and again in 1808. The tax produced 64,515. in the year ending 31 March, 1868; 64,2287., 1872. The tax is now 27. 28.; if not on carriages, it is 17. 18. annually (1873). ARMORICA, now Brittany, N. France, was conquered by Julius Cæsar, 56 B.C. Many Gauls retired there and preserved the Celtic tongue, A.D. 584; see Brittany. ARMOUR. That of Goliath is described (about 1063 B.C.) I Sam. xvii. 5. Skins and padded hides were early used, and brass and iron armour, in plates or scales, followed. The body armour of the Armour of Henry VII. consisted of a cuirass of steel, in the form of a pair of stays, about Armour ceased to reach below the knees, Charles I. 1625 In the reign of Charles II. officers wore no other armour than a large gorget, which is commemorated in the diminutive ornament known at the present day. Meyrick. ARMOUR PLATES, see Iron, and Navy of England. ARMS. The club was the first offensive wea pon; then followed the mace, battle-axe, pike, Pliny ascribes the invention of the sling to the spear, javelin, sword and dagger, bows and arrows. Phoenicians; see articles on the various weapons throughout the volume. ARMS, see Armorial bearings, and Heraldry. ARMS BILLS, for the repression of crime and insurrection in Ireland were passed, 1807, 1810, 1823, 1829, and 15 Oct. 1831. The guns registered under the last act at the close of the first year scarcely amounted to 3000, and the number was equally small of all other kinds of arms. The new Arms' bill, passed 22 Aug. 1843, has been since renewed, but was not rigidly enforced till 1867. ARMSTRONG GUN, see under Cannon. ARMY. Ninus and Semiramis had armies amounting to nearly two millions of fighting men, 2017 B.C. The first guards and regular troops as a standing army were formed by Saul, 1093 B.C. Eusebius. The army of Xerxes invading Greece is said to have been 1,700,000 foot and 80,000 horse: 480 B.C. One of the first standing armies of which we have any account, is that of Philip of Macedon. The army which Darius opposed to Alexander the Great (332 B.C.) is set down as between 750,000 and a million. The first standing army which existed as such, in modern times, was maintained in France by Charles VII. in 1445. The chief European nations have had in their service the following armies: Spain, 150,000 men; Great Britain, 310,000; Prussia, 350,000; Turkey, 450,000; Austria, 500,000; Russia, 560,000; and France, 1,000,000. Estimated number in Europe in 1863, 6,000,000 soldiers, 1,000,000 horses, 11,000 guns. The European powers still increasing their armies, 1873. ARMY, BRITISH, mainly arose in the reign of Charles II. in 1661, in consequence of the extinction of feudal tenures. The first five regiments of British infantry were established between 1633 and 1680. James II. established several regiments of dragoon guards (1685-8). In 1685 the army consisted of 7000 foot and 1700 cavalry. Standing armies were introduced by Charles I. in 1638; they were declared illegal in England, 31 Char. II. 1679; but one was then gradually forming, which was maintained by William III. 1689, when the Mutiny Act was passed. Grose's "History of the British Army" was published in 1801. See Regiments, A commission recommend the establishment of a Militia, and Volunteers. 89,300 93,471 99,118 Sum voted. 1852, Peace (except Kaffir war) 1854, War with Russia 101,937 112,977 men. recruiting department, increase of pensions, &c. 20 June,,, 31 Oct. 1866 Flogging restricted to insubordination (with violence) and indecency March (?) 1867 New Army Enlistment Act (limiting period of enlistment to 12 years, &c.) passed Increased pay to all soldiers (except to life-guards) from 1 April, 1867; by warrant, dated. 29 June, Act to form a reserve of men in the militia to join the army in the event of war, passed 20 Aug. "War Department Stores " Act passed 20 Aug. Sir Henry Storks appointed Controller-in-Chief 1 Jan. 1868 Mar. Royal commission on military education appointed, 23 June, 1868; report with recommendations issued about. . Oct. 1869 6,890,267 Flogging abolished in time of peace, by an amendment in the Mutiny Act 6,763,488 7,018,164 7,387,000 Sum voted Total In India* (including men. ordnance, &c.) 29,629 £32,006,603 26,363 20,811,242 175,858 30,197 14,405,850 222,874 92,739 13,294,814 229,551 91,897 14,915,243 228,854 71,528 18,013,896 212,773 60,041 16,854,299 228,973 83,523 16,264,790 220,918 72,676 14,723.976 Army Service Corps, to be composed of volunteers June, 1871 Army Regulation bill (the abolition of the purchase system, &c.) passed in the commons, 289-231, early 4 July; introduced in the lords, 13 July; able speech of the duke of Cambridge in its favour, 14 July; rejected (155-130), 2 a. m., 18 July, Purchase system abolished by royal warrant (in 178,000 62,963 & 6 Edw. VI. c. 16, and 49 pursuance of acts 13,430,400 197,911 62,864 16,450,000 Geo. III. c. 126) on and after 1 Nov. 1871. 196,606 62,957 14,824,500 20 July,,, Regulation of the Forces Act passed 17 Aug. Volunteers in Great Britain, in 1862, 167,921, in 1872, Militia, 1872, 139,018; yeomanry, 15.455. The Mutiny Act is passed annually since 1689; alterations made in this act and in the Articles of War 1855 Army Service Acts: 12 & 13 Vict. c. 37 (21 June, 1847), and 18 Viet. c. 4 27 Feb. 1855 Officers in the service of the East India Company to have the same rank and precedence as those in the regular army . 25 April The office of Master-General of the Ordnance abolished, and the civil administration of the Army and Ordnance vested in the hands of lord Panmure, the Minister of War 25 May,,, Examination of staff officers previous to their ap pointment ordered 9 April, 1857 1857-8 Examination of candidates for the Military Aca- 5 Autumn Campaign in Hampshire; about 40,000 Manoeuvres according to the Prussian system; Grant declared victor. Sham fight; Chatham stormed The duke of Cambridge's favourable report was . 33 Army estimates passed in commons (234-63) 12 Mar.,, |