1659 Gregory invents a reflecting telescope. Discoveries of Picard 1663 ASTLEY'S AMPHITHEATRE, see under Huyghens completes the discovery of Saturn's ring 1654 Theatres. ASTORGA (N. W. Spain), the ancient Asturica Augusta, was taken by the French in 1810, and treated with great severity. ASTRACAN (S. E. Russia), a province acquired from the Mogul's empire in 1554; visited and settled by Peter the Great in 1722. ASTROLABE, an instrument for observing the stars, said to have been employed by Hipparchus about 130 B.C.; and by Ptolemy about 140 A.D. The modern astrolabe was described by Fabricius in 1513. ASTROLOGY. Judicial astrology was cultivated by the Chaldeans, and transmitted to the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans. It was much in vogue in Italy and France in the time of Catherine de Medicis (married to Francis I. of France, 1533). Hénault. It is said that Bede, 673-735, was addicted to it; and Roger Bacon, 1214-1292. Lord Burleigh is said to have calculated the nativity of Elizabeth, and she, and other princes, were dupes of Dee, the astrologer. It is stated that Lilly was consulted by Charles I. respecting his projected escape from Carisbrook castle in 1647. Ferguson. Astrological almanacs are still published in London. ASTRONOMER-ROYAL, see Greenwich. ASTRONOMY. The earliest astronomical observations were made at Babylon it is said about 2234 B.C. The study was much advanced in Chaldæa under Nabonassar; was known to the Chinese about 1100 B.C.; some say many centuries before; see Eclipses, Planets, Comets, Sun, Moon, Jupiter, Saturn, Neptune, &c. Lunar eclipses observed at Babylon, and recorded B.C. by Ptolemy about 720 about 600 Spherical form of the earth, and the true cause of lunar eclipses, taught by Thales .about 470 Further discoveries by Pythagoras, who taught the doctrine of celestial motions, and believed in the plurality of habitable worlds, died Meton introduces the lunar-solar cycle Treatises of Aristotle "concerning the heavens," and of Autolycus "on the motion of the sphere" (earliest extant works on astronomy). Aratus writes a poem on astronomy Archimedes observes solstices, &c. about Hipparchus, greatest of Greek astronomers, determines mean motion of sun and moon; discovers precession of equinoxes, &c. 433 350 281 212 160-125 The precession of the equinoxes confirmed, and the places and distances of the planets discovered, by Ptolemy. A. D. 139-161 Astronomy and geography cultivated by the Arabs about 1200 about 1253 about 1500 True doctrine of the motions of the planetary bodies revived by Copernicus, founder of modern astronomy; his "Revolution of the Heavenly Bodies' published . 1543 1669 about 1670 Charts of the moon constructed by Scheiner, Langrenus, Hevelius, Riccioli, &c. Discoveries of Römer on the velocity of light, and his observation of Jupiter's satellites Greenwich Observatory founded Motion of the sun round its own axis proved by Newton's Principia published; and the system, as Satellites of Saturn, &c., discovered by Cassini John Harrison produces chronometers for determining the longitude, 1735 et seq., and obtains the reward ASTURIAS (Oviedo, since 1833) N. W. Spain, an ancient principality. Here Pelayo collected the Gothic fugitives, about 713, founded a new kingdom, and by his victories checked Moorish conquest. For his successors, see Spain. The heir-apparent of the monarchy has borne the title "prince of Asturias" since 1388, when it was assumed by Henry, son of John I. king of Leon, on his marriage with a descendant of Peter of Castile. In 1808, the junta of Asturias began the organised resistance to the French usurpation. ASYLUMS, or PRIVILEGED PLACES, at first were places of refuge for those who by accident or necessity had done things that rendered them obnoxious to the law. God commanded the Jews to build cities of refuge, 1451 B.C, Numbers xxv.-The posterity of Hercules are said to have built one at Athens, to protect themselves against such as their father had irritated. Cadmus is said to have built one at Thebes, 1490 B.C., and Komulus one at Mount Palatine, 751 B.C.; see Sanctuaries. E ATELIERS NATIONAUX (National Workshops), were established by the French provisional government in Feb. 1848. They interfered greatly with private trade, as about 100,000 workmen threw themselves upon the government for labour and payment. The breaking-up of the system led to the fearful conflicts in June following; and the system was abolished in July. ATHANASIAN CREED. Athanasius, of Alexandria, was elected bishop, 326. He firmly opposed the doctrines of Arius (who denied Christ's divinity), was several times exiled, and died in 373. The creed which bears his name is supposed to have been written about 340; or to be the compilation of Vigilius Tapsensis, an African bishop in the 5th century. It was commented on by Venatius Fortunatus, bishop of Poictiers in 570, and authorised by Charlemagne, 802. Dr. Waterland's history of this creed (1724) is exhaustive; see Arians. Much agitation against the general use of this creed has arisen in the Church of England among both clergy and laity, 1870-73. Modifications approved by several bishops were negatived by the lower house in convocation, (62-7) early in May, 1872. The vote was rejected by the bishops, and the agitation continued. In a letter to the earl of Shaftesbury, 22 July, 1872, the archbishops of Canterbury and York expressed their hope of devising a way for rendering the reading of the creed during public worship not compulsory. Great meeting of laity at St. James's Hall in defence of the creed, 31 Jan. 1873. ATHEISM (from the Greek a, without, Theos, God, see Psalm xiv. 1). It was professed by Epicurus, Lucretius, and other philosophers. Spinoza was the defender of a similar doctrine (1632-1677). Lucilio Vanini publicly taught atheism in France, and was condemned to be burnt at Toulouse in 1619. Mathias Knutzen, of Holstein, openly professed atheism, and had upwards of a thousand disciples in Germany about 1674; he travelled to make proselytes, and his followers were called Conscienciaries, because they held that there is no other deity than conscience. "Though a small draught of philosophy may lead a man into atheism, a deep draught will certainly bring him back again to the belief of a God." Lord Bacon. Atheism was the ruling doctrine of the French republic, 1794 till 1804; see Materialism. ATHENEA were great festivals celebrated at Athens in honour of Minerva. One was called Panathenæa, the other Chalcea; they are said to have been instituted by Erechtheus or Orpheus, 1397 or 1495 B.C.; and revived by Theseus, who caused them to be observed by all the Athenians, the first every fifth year, 1234 B.C. Plutarch. ATHENÆUM, a place at Athens, sacred to Minerva, where the poets and philosophers recited their compositions. That of Rome, of great beauty, was erected by the emperor Adrian, 125.-The ATHENAEUM CLUB of London was formed in 1823, for the association of persons of scientific and literary attainments, and artists, and noblemen and gentlemen, patrons of learning, &c., by the earl of Aberdeen, marquis of Lansdowne, Dr. T. Young, Moore, Davy, Scott, Mackintosh, Faraday, Croker, Chantry, Lawrence, and others; the clubhouse was erected in 1829-30 on the site of the late Carltonpalace; it is of Grecian architecture, and the frieze is an exact copy of the Panathenaic procession which formed the frieze of the Parthenon. -The Liverpool Athenæum was opened 1 Jan. 1799. At Manchester, Bristol, and many other places, buildings under this name, and for a like purpose, have been founded.-The Athenæum, a weekly literary and scientific journal, first appeared in 1828. ATHENRY (Galway). Near here the Irish were totally defeated, and a gallant young chief, Feidlim O'Connor, slain 10 Aug. 1316. ATHENS, the capital of ancient Attica, and of modern Greece. The first sovereign mentioned is Ogyges, who reigned in Boeotia, and was master of Attica, then called Ionia. Tradition states that in his reign (about 1764 B.C.) a deluge laid waste the country, which so remained till the arrival of the Egyptian Cecrops and a colony, by whom the land was re-peopled, and twelve cities founded, 1556 B.C. The city, said to have been first called Cecropia, was afterwards named Athens in honour of Minerva (Athene), her worship having been introduced by Erechtheus, 1383 B.C. Athens was ruled by seventeen successive kings (487 years), by thirteen perpetual archons (316 years), seven decennial archons (70 years), and lastly by annual archons (760 years). It attained great power, and no other city has had, in a short space of time, so great a number of illustrious citizens. The ancients called Athens Astu, the city, by eminence, and one of the eyes of Greece; see Greece. Arrival of Cecrops B.C. [1558 Hales, 1433 Clinton] The Areopagus established Erechtheus teaches husbandry. 1556 1507 1502 [1499 H.] 1497 [1481 H.] 1495 1487 1383 1356 1347 1283 Eleusinian mysteries introduced by Eumolpus Erechtheus killed in battle with the Eleusinians Egeus invades Attica, and ascends the throne Reign of Mnestheus, 1205; of Demophoon . In a battle with the Heraclidæ, Codrus is killed: he had resolved to perish; the oracle having declared that the victory should be with the side whose leader was killed Royalty abolished-Athens governed by archons, Alemeon, last perpetual archon, dies . 1234 1182 . 1179 . 1178 1128 1092 1070 (1070 H.) 1044 753 752 713 684 683 621 594 Draco, the 12th annual archon, publishes his laws First tragedy acted at Athens, on a Hipparchus assassinated by Harmodius and Aristogeiton The law of ostracism established; Hippias and the The Persian invaders defeated at Marathon. Aristides, surnamed the Just, banished Rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles; Piræus 352 346 336 335 322 317 296 277 256 229 215 ATHLONE, Roscommon, Ireland, was burnt during the civil war in 1641. After the battle of the Boyne, colonel R. Grace held Athlone for James II. against a besieging army, but fell when it was taken by assault by Ginckel, 30 June, 1691; see Aughrim. ATLANTA, see United States, 1864. ATLANTIC TELEGRAPH, see Electric Telegraph, under Electricity. ATMOLYSIS, a method of separating the constituent gases of a compound gas (such as atmospheric air) by causing it to pass through a vessel of porous material (such as graphite); first made known in Aug. 1863, by the discoverer, the late professor T. Graham, F.R.S., master of the mint. ATMOSPHERE, see Air. ATMOSPHERIC RAILWAYS. The idea of producing motion by atmospheric pressure was conceived by Papin, the French engineer, about 1680. Experiments were made on a line of rail, laid down across Wormwood Scrubs, London, between Shepherd's Bush and the Great Western railroad, to test the efficacy of atmospheric tubes, the working of the air-pump, and speed of carriages upon this new principle on railroads in June, 1840, and then tried for a short time on a line between Croydon and London, 1845. Atmospheric pressure was also tried and abandoned, in 1848, on the South Devon line. An atmospheric railway was menced between Dalkey and Killiney, in the vicinity of Dublin, in Sept. 1843; opened 29 March, 1844; discontinued in 1855. A similar railway was proposed to be laid down in the streets of London by Mr. T. W. Rammell, in 1857. Mr. Rammell's Pneumatic Railway was put in action successfully at the Crystal Palace on 27 Aug. 1864, and following days. An act for a pneumatic railway between the Waterloo railway station and Whitehall was passed in July, 1865. Atmospheric pressure was proposed for a submarine railway from Dover to Calais, in 1869; see Pneumatic Despatch. com ATOMIC THEORY, in chemistry, deals with the indivisible particles of all substances. The somewhat incoherent labours of his predecessors (such as Wenzel, in 1777) were reduced by John Dalton to four laws of combining proportion, which have received the name of "Atomic Theory." His "Chemical Philosophy," containing the exposition of his views, appeared in 1808. Dr. C. Daubeny's work on the Atomic Theory was published in 1850. In his standard of Atomic weights Dalton takes hydrogen as 1. Berzelius, who commenced his elaborate researches on the subject in 1848, adopts oxygen as 100. The former standard is used in this country, the latter on the continent. The theory is accepted by some, and rejected by other chemists. In 1855 Hinrichs propounded a new hypothetical 86 science, Atomechanics, in which pantogen, composed of panatoms, is regarded as the primary chemical principle. 211 196 144 88 42 47 . A. D. 52 Many temples, &c., erected by Hadrian ATREBATES, a Belgic people, subdued by 122-135 Cæsar, 57 B.C.; see Artois. ATTAINDER, ACTS OF, whereby a person not only forfeited his land, but his blood was attainted, have been numerous. Two witnesses in cases of high treason are necessary where corruption of blood is incurred, unless the party accused shall confess, or stand mute, 7 & 8 Wili. III. 1694-5. Blackstone. The attainder of lord Russell, who was beheaded in Lincoln's-inn- fields, 21 July, 1683, was reversed under William, in 1689. The rolls and records of the acts of attainder passed in the reign of James II. were cancelled and publicly burnt, 2 Oct. 1695. Amongst the last acts reversed was the attaint of the children of lord Edward Fitzgerald (who was implicated in the rebellion in Ireland of 1798), I July, 1819. In 1814 and 1833 the severity of attainders was mitigated. Several attainders reversed about 1827, and one in 1853 (the earl of Perth). ATTICA, see Athens. ATTILA, surnamed the "Scourge of God," and thus distinguished for his conquests and his crimes, having ravaged the eastern empire from 445 to 450, when he made peace with Theodosius. He invaded the western empire, 450, and was defeated by Aëtius at Chalons, 451; he then retired into Pannonia, where he died through the bursting of a blood vessel on his nuptials with Ildico, a beautiful virgin, 453. ATTORNEY (from tour, turn), a person qualified to act for another at law. The number in Edward III.'s reign was under 400 for the whole kingdom. In the 32nd of Henry VI., 1454, a law reduced the practitioners in Norfolk, Norwich, and Suffolk, from eighty to fourteen, and restricted their increase. The number of attorneys now practising in the United Kingdom is said to be 13,824 (1872). The qualifications and practice of attorneys and solicitors are now regulated by acts passed in 1843, 1861, and 1870. ATTORNEY-GENERAL, a law officer of the crown, appointed by letters patent. He has to exhibit informations and prosecute for the king in matters criminal, and to file bills in exchequer, for any claims concerning the crown in inheritance or profit. Others may bring bills against the king's attorney. The first attorney-general was William Bonneville, 1277. 1718. Nicholas Lechmere, esq., aft. lord Lechmere. 1720. Sir Robert Raymond, aft. lord Raymond. 1724. Sir Philip Yorke, after. earl of Hardwicke. 1734. Sir John Willes, knt. 1737. Sir Dudley Ryder, knt. 1754. Hon. William Murray, aft. earl of Mansfield. 1756. Sir Robert Henley, knt., aft. earl of Northington. 1757. Sir Charles Pratt, knt., afterwards lord Camden. 1762. Hon. Charles Yorke. 1763. Sir Fletcher Norton, knt., aft. Lord Grantley. 1765. Hon. Charles Yorke, again; afterwards lord Morden, and lord chancellor; see Chancellors. 1766. William de Grey, afterwards lord Walsingham. 1807. 1812. chief justice of the Sir Thomas Plumer, afterwards first vice-chancellor of England, 26 June. 1813. Sir William Garrow, 4 May. 1817. Sir Samuel Shepherd, 7 May. 1819. Sir Robert Gifford, aft. lord Giffard, 24 July. 1824. Sir John Singleton Copley, afterwards lord Lyndhurst, 9 Jan. 1826. Sir Charles Wetherell,' 20 Sept. 1827. Sir James Scarlett, 27 April. 1828. Sir Charles Wetherell, again, 19 Feb. 1829. Sir Jas. Scarlett, again; aft. lord Abinger, 29 June. 1830. Sir Thos. Denman, aft. lord Denman, 26 Nov. 1832. Sir William Horne, 26 Nov. 1834. Sir John Campbell, March. Sir Frederick Pollock, 17 Dec. 1835. Sir John Campbell, again, afterwards lord Camp1841. Sir Thomas Wilde, 3 July. bell (and, 1859, lord chancellor), 30 April. Sir F. Pollock, again; aft. chief baron, 6 Sept. 1844. Sir William W. Follett, 15 April. 1845. Sir Frederick Thesiger, 4 July. 1846. Sir Thomas Wilde, again; afterwards lord Truro, and lord chancellor, 6 July. Sir John Jervis, afterwards chief justice of the common pleas, 13 July. 1850. Sir John Romilly, aft. master of the rolls, 11 July. 1851. Sir Alex. James Edmund Cockburn, 28 March. 1852. Sir Frederick Thesiger, again; afterwards lord Chelmsford, and lord chancellor, 2 March. Sir R. Bethell (since lord Westbury, and lord chancellor), 18 June. 1861. Sir William Atherton, 27 July. 1863. Sir Roundell Palmer, 2 Oct. 1866. Sir Hugh M. Cairns, aft. lord chancellor, 13 July. Sir John Rolt (made justice of appeal), 28 Oct. 1867. Sir John Karslake, 1 July. 1868. Sir Robert Porrett Collier, 12 Dec. 1871. Sir John Duke Coleridge, 10 Nov. I ATTORNEYS' AND ACT, passed 14 July, 1870. SOLICITORS' ATTRACTION, described by Copernicus, about 1520, as an appetence or appetite which the Creator impressed upon all parts of matter; by Kepler as a corporeal affection tending to union, 1605, In 1687, sir I. Newton published his "Principia, containing his important researches on this subject. There are the attractions of Gravitation, Magnetism, and Electricity (which see). ATTWOOD'S MACHINE, for proving the laws of accelerated motion by the falling of weights, invented by George Attwood; described 1784: he died 11 July, 1807. AUBAINE, a right of the French kings, which existed from the beginning of the monarchy, whereby they claimed the property of every stranger who died in their country, without having been naturalised, was abolished by the national assembly fn 1790-91; re-established by Napoleon in 1804, and finally annulled 14 July 1819. 66 AUCTION, a kind of sale known to the Romans, mentioned by Petronius Arbiter (about A.D. 66). The first in Britain was about 1700, by Elisha Yale, a governor of Fort George, now Madras, in the East Indies, who thus sold the goods he had brought home. Auction and sales' tax began, 1779. Various acts of parliament have regulated auctions and imposed duties, in some cases as high as five per cent. By 8 Vict. c. 15 (1845), the duties were repealed, and a charge imon the licence to be taken out by all aucposed tioneers in the United Kingdom, of 10l." In 1858 there were 4358 licences granted, producing, 43,5801. The abuses at auctions, termed "knock-outs," caused by combinations of brokers and others, excited much attention in Sept. 1866. An act regulating sales of land by auction was passed 15 July, 1867. Certain sales are now exempt from being conducted by a licensed auctioneer, such as goods and chattels under a distress for rent, and sales under the provisions of the Small Debts' acts for Scotland and Ireland. AUDIANI, followers of Audæus of Mesopotamia, who had been expelled from the Syrian church on account of his severely reproving the vices of the clergy, about 338, formed a sect and became its bishop. He was banished to Scythia, where he is said to have made many converts. His followers celebrated Easter at the time of the Jewish passover, attributed the human figure to the Deity, and had other peculiar tenets. AUDIT-OFFICE, Somerset House. Commissioners for auditing the public accounts were appointed in 1785, and many statutes regulating their duties have since been enacted. AUDLEY'S REBELLION, see Rebellions, 1497. AUERSTADT (Prussia). Here on 14 Oct. 1806, the French, under Davoust, signally defeated the Prussians, under Blucher; see Jena. AUGHRIM, near Athlone, in Ireland, where on 12 July, 1691, a battle was fought between the Irish, headed by the French general St. Ruth, and the English under general Ginckel. The former were defeated and lost 7000 men; the latter lost only 600 killed and 960 wounded. St. Ruth was slain. This engagement proved decisively fatal to the interest of James II., and Ginckel was created earl of Athlone. AUGMENTATION OF POOR LIVINGS' OFFICE, established in 1704. 5597 clerical livings, not exceeding 50l. per annum, were found by the commissioners under the act of Anne capable of augmentation, by means of the bounty then established. AUGMENTATIONS COURT, established in 1535 by 27 Hen. VIII. c. 27, in relation to cap. 28 same session, which gave the king the property of all monasteries having 200l. a year. The court was abolished by Mary, 1553, and restored by Elizabeth, 1558. AUGSBURG (Bavaria), originally a colony settled by Augustus, about 12 B.C.; became a free city, and flourished during the middle ages. Here In A.D. 952, a council confirmed the order for the many important diets of the empire have been heid. celibacy of the priesthood. Augsburg has suffered much by war, having been frequently taken by siege,-in 788, 1703, 1704, and, last, by the French, 10 Oct. 1805, who restored it to Bavaria in March, 1806. Nov. 1530 Augsburg Diet, summoned by the emperor Charles V., to settle the religious disputes of Germany, met 20 June, and separated Confession of Augsburg, compiled by Melanchthon, Luther and others, signed by the Protestant princes, presented to the emperor Charles V., and read to the diet 25 June, 1530 Interim of Augsburg, a document issued by Charles V. an attempt to reconcile the Catholics and Protestants: (it was fruitless and was withdrawn) read 15 May, 1548 "Peace of Religion" signed at Augsburg, 25 Sept. 1555 League of Augsburg, for maintenance of the treaties of Münster, Nimeguen: a treaty between Holland and other powers against France, signed 9 July, 1686 AUGURY. Husbandry was in part regulated by the coming or going of birds, long before the time of Hesiod. Three augurs, at Rome, with vestals and several orders of the priesthood, were formally constituted by Numa, about 710 B.C. number increased, and was fifteen at the time of Sylla, 81. The college of augurs was abolished by Theodosius about A.D. 390. The AUGUST, the eighth Roman month of the year (previously called Sextilis, or the sixth from March), by a decree of the senate received its present name in honour of Augustus Caesar, in the year 8 B.C., because in this month he was created consul, had thrice triumphed in Rome, added Egypt civil wars. He added one day to the month, making to the Roman empire, and made an end of the it 31 days. The appearance of shooting stars on the 10th of Aug. was observed in the middle ages, when they were termed "St. Lawrence's tears.' Their periodicity was noticed by Mr. Forster early in the present century. AUGUSTAN ERA began 14 Feb. 27 B.C., or 727 years after the foundation of Rome. AUGUSTIN or AUSTIN FRIARS, a religious order, which ascribes its origin to St. Augustin, bishop of Hippo, who died 430. They first appeared about the 11th century, and the order was constituted by pope Alexander IV., 1256. The rule requires poverty, humility, and chastity. Martin held the doctrine of free grace, and were rivals of Luther was an Augustin monk. The Augustins the Dominicans. The order appeared in England soon after the conquest, and had 32 houses at the suppression, 1536. One of their churches, at Austin Friars, London, erected 1354, and since the Reformation used by Dutch protestants, was partially destroyed by fire, 22 Nov. 1862. It was restored, and reopened, I Oct. 1865. A religious house of the order, dedicated to St. Monica, mother of Augustin, was founded in Hoxton-square, London, 1864. AULIC COUNCIL, a sovereign court in Germany, established by the emperor Maximilian I., being one of the two courts, the first called the Imperial Chamber civil and criminal, instituted at Worms, 1495, and afterwards held at Spires and Wetzler, and the other the Aulic council at Vienna, 1506. These courts having concurrent jurisdiction, |