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1835. Ferdinand, his son, 2 March; abdicated in favour
of his nephew (his brother Francis-Charles having
renounced his rights).
1848. Francis-Joseph (son of Francis-Charles), born 18
Aug. 1830; succeeded, 2 Dec. 1848; married
24 April, 1854, to Elizabeth of Bavaria; crowned
king of Hungary, 8 June, 1867.
[Heir: their son, the archduke Rodolph, born 21 Aug.
1858.]

AUTO DA FE (Act of faith), the term given to the punishment of a heretic, generally burning alive, inflicted by the Inquisition (which see).

"AVE MARIA !" the salutation of the angel Gabriel to the Virgin (Luke i. 28), was made a formula of devotion by pope John XXI. about 1326. In the beginning of the 15th century Vincentius Ferrerius used it before his discourses. Bingham.

AVIGNON, a city, S. E. France, ceded by Philip III. to the pope in 1273. The papal seat AUTHORS. For the law securing copyright, was removed by Clement V. to Avignon, in 1309. see Copyrights. In 1348 Clement VI. purchased the sovereignty froin Jane, countess of Provence and queen of Naples. In 1408, the French, wearied of the schism, expelled Benedict XIII., and Avignon ceased to be the seat of the papacy. Here were held nine stored several times by the French kings; the last councils (1080-1457). Avignon was seized and retime restored, 1773. It was claimed by the national assembly, 1791, and was confirmed to France by the congress of sovereigns in 1815. In Oct. 1791. horrible massacres took place here. See Popes, 1309-94.

AUTOMATON FIGURES (or ANDROIDES), made to imitate living actions, are of early invention. Archytas' flying dove was formed about 400 B.C. Friar Bacon is said to have made a brazen head which spoke, A.D. 1264. Albertus Magnus spent thirty years in making another. A coach and two horses, with a footman, a page, a lady inside, were made by Camus for Louis XIV. when a child; the horses and figures moved naturally, variously, and perfectly, 1649. Vaucanson, in 1738, made an artificial duck, which performed many functions of a real one-eating, drinking, and quacking; and he also made a flute-player. The writing automaton, exhibited in 1769, was a pentagraph worked by a confederate out of sight. The automaton chess-player, exhibited the same year, was also worked by a hidden person, and so was the "invisible girl," 1800. Maelzel made a trumpeter about 1809. Early in this century, an automaton was exhibited in London which pronounced several sentences with tolerable distinctness.

The

"anthropoglossus," an alleged talking-machine, exhibited at St. James's hall, London, July 1864, was proved to be a gross imposition. The exhibition of the talking-machine of professor Faber of Vienna, in London, began 27 Aug. 1870, at the Palais Royal, Argyll-street, W.

AUTOTYPOGRAPHY, a process of producing a metal plate from drawings, made known by Mr. Wallis, in April, 1863; it resembled Natureprinting (which see).

AXE, WEDGE, LEVER, and various tools in common use, are said to have been invented by Daedalus, an artificer of Athens, to whom also is ascribed the invention of masts and sails for ships, 1240 B.C. Many tools are represented on the Egyptian monuments.

AXUM, or AUXUME, a town in Abyssinia said to have been the capital of a kingdom whose people were converted to Christianity by Frumentius about 330, and to have been allies of Justinian, 533.

AYACUCHO (Peru). Here the Peruvians finally achieved their independence by defeating the Spaniards, 9 Dec. 1824.

AYDE, or AIDE, the tax paid by the vassal to the chief lord upon urgent occasions. In France and England an aide was due for knighting the king's eldest son. One was demanded by Philip the Fair, 1313. The aide due upon the birth of a prince, ordained by the statute of Westminster (Edward I.) 1285, was not to be levied until he was fifteen years of age, for the ease of the subject. The aide for the marriage of the king's eldest daughter could not be demanded in this country

AUXERRE DECLARATION, see France, until her seventh year. In feudal tenures there May, 1866.

AVA in 1822 became the capital of the Burmese empire, it is said, for the third time. A British embassy was received here in Sept. 1855.

AVARS, barbarians who ravaged Pannonia, and annoyed the eastern empire in the 6th and 7th centuries, subdued by Charlemagne about 799, after an eight years' war.

AVESBURY, or ABURY (Wiltshire). Here are the remains of the largest Celtic or Druidical work in this country. They have been surveyed by Aubrey, 1648; Dr. Stukeley, 1720; and sir R. C. Hoare, in 1812, and by others. Much information may be obtained from Stukeley's "Abury" (1743). and Hoare's "Ancient Wiltshire" (1812-21), Many theories have been put forth, but the object of these remains is still unknown. They are considered to have been set up during the "stone age," i.e., when weapons and implements were mainly formed of that material.

was an aide for ransoming the chief lord; so when our Richard I. was kept a prisoner by the emperor of Germany, an aide of 20s., to redeem him, was enforced upon every knight's fee; see Benevolence.

AYLESBURY, Buckinghamshire, was reduced by the West Saxons in 571. St. O'Syth, beheaded William the conqueror invested his favourites with by the pagans in Essex, was buried there, 600. some of its lands, under the tenure of providing straw for his bed-chambers; three eels for his use in winter; and in summer, straw, rushes, and two green geese thrice every year." Incorporated by charter in 1554.

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AYLESFORD (Kent). Here, it is said, the Britons were victorious over the Saxon invaders, 455, and Horsa was killed.

AZINCOUR, see Agincourt.

AZOFF, SEA OF, the Palus Mæotis of the ancients, communicates by the strait of Yenikalé (the Bosporus Cimmerius) with the Black AVEIN, or AVAINE (Luxemburg, Belgium). Sea, and is entirely surrounded by Russian terriHere the French and Dutch defeated the Spaniards, tory; Taganrog and Kertch being the principal 20 May, 1635. places. An expedition, composed of British, French,

and Turkish troops, commanded by sir G. Brown, arrived at Kerteh, 24 May, 1855, when the Russians retired, after blowing up the fortifications. On the 25th the allies marched upon Yenikalé, which also offered no resistance. On the same evening the allied fleet entered the Sea of Azoff, and in a few days completed their occupation of it, after capturing a large number of merchant vessels, &c. An immense amount of stores was destroyed by the Russians to prevent them falling into the hands of the allies.

AZORES, or WESTERN ISLES (N. Atlantic), belonging to Portugal, the supposed site of the ancient Atlantis, are said to have been discovered in the 15th century by Vanderberg of Bruges, who was driven on their coasts by the weather. Cabral, sent by the Portuguese court, fell in with St. Mary's in 1432, and in 1457 they were all discovered and named Azores from the number of goshawks found on them. They were given by Alfonso V. to the duchess of Burgundy in 1466 and colonised by Flemings. They were subject to Spain 1580-1640.

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The isle Terceira, during the usurpation of dom Miguel, declared for Donna Maria, 1829, and a government was established at the capital Angra, 1830-33. A volcano at St. George's destroyed the town of Ursulina, May, 1808; and in 1811 a volcano appeared near St. Michael's, in the sea, where the water was eighty fathoms deep; an island then formed gradually disappeared. A destructive earthquake lasting 12 days, happened in St. Michael's, 1591.

AZOTE, the name given by French chemists to nitrogen (which see).

AZOTUS, see Ashdod.

AZTECS, the ruling tribe in Mexico at the time of the Spanish invasion (1519). In June, 1853, twɔ pretended Aztec children were exhibited in London. They were considered by professor Owen to be merely South American dwarfs. They were married in London, 1 April, 1867, and exhibited for some time after.

B.

BAAL (Lord), the male deity of the Phoenician | holy writ, the son of Chus, and grandson of Ham, nations, frequently worshipped by the Israelites, especially by Ahab, 918 B.C. Ilis priests and votaries were massacred by Jehu and his temple defiled, 884 B.C.

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BABBAGE, see Calculating Machines.

BABEL, TOWER of, built by Noah's posterity, 2247 B.C. (Genesis, ch. xi.) The magnificent temple of Belus, asserted to have been originally this tower, is said to have had lofty spires, and many statues of gold, one of them forty feet high. In the upper part of this temple was the tomb of the founder, Belus (the Nimrod of the sacred scriptures), who was deified after death. Blair. The Birs Nimroud, examined by Rich, Layard, and others, is considered by some persons to be the remains of the tower of Babel.

2245 B.C. Lenglet. Ninus of Assyria seized on Babylon, and established what was properly the Assyrian empire, by uniting the two sovereignties, 2059 B.C. 2233 Cl. The second empire of Babylon commenced about 747 B.C.

Earliest astronomical observations at Babylon,
B.C. 2234, [2230, H. 2233, CI.]
Nabonassar governs.

Merodach Baladan king, 721; his embassy to Heze

kiah of Judah about

Nebuchadnezzar invades Syria, 606; Judea, 605; defeats Pharaoh Necho, and annihilates the Egyptian power in Asia.

He returns to Babylon with the spoils of Jerusalem. Blair; Lenglet .

Daniel interprets the king's dream of the goldenheaded image. Daniel ii.

747

712

604

602

Nebuchadnezzar goes a third time against Jerusa lem, takes it and destroys the temple. Blair; Usher 589 to 587

The golden image set up, and Shadrach, Meshach,
and Abed-nego thrown into the furnace for refus-
ing to worship it. Daniel iii.

Daniel interprets the king's second dream, and
Nebuchadnezzar is driven from among men.
Daniel iv.

The king recovers his reason and his throne, 562;
dies

Evil Merodach, 561: Neriglissar, king

570

569

561

559

BABEUF'S CONSPIRACY, see Agrarian Labynetus, 556; Nabonadius, 551; Belshazzar king 539

Law.

BABY-FARMING, see Infanticide.

BABYLONIA,* an Asiatic empire (see Assyria), founded by Belus, supposed to be the Nimrod of

*The city of Babylon was at one time the most magnificent in the world. The Hanging Gardens are described as having been of a square form, and in terraces one above another until they rose as high as the walls of the city, the ascent being from terrace to terrace by steps. The whole pile was sustained by vast arches raised on other arches; and on the top were flat stones closely cemented together with plaster of bitumen, and that covered with sheets of lead, upon which lay the mould of the garden, where there were large trees, shrubs, and flowers, with various sorts of vegetables. There were five of these gardens, each containing about four English acres, and disposed in the form of an amphitheatre. Strabo Diodorus. Pliny said that in his time it was but a desolate wilderness. Mr. Rich visited the ruins in

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1811, and sir R. Kerr Porter in 1818. The laborious researches of Mr. Layard, sir H. Rawlinson, M. Botta, and others, and the interesting relics excavated and brought to this country between the years 1849 and 1855, have caused very much attention to be given to the history of Babylon. Many of the inscriptions in the cuneiform or wedge-like character have been translated, principally by col. (now sir Henry) Rawlinson, and published in the Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. In the spring of 1855, he returned to England, bringing with him many valuable relics, drawings, &c., which are now in the British Museum. He gave discourses on the subject at the Royal Institution, London, in 1851, 1855, and 1865.

BABYNGTON'S CONSPIRACY, to assassinate queen Elizabeth, and make Mary of Scotland queen, was devised by John Savage, a soldier of Philip of Spain, and approved by Wm. Gifford and John Ballard, catholic priests. Anthony Babyngton and others joined in the scheme. They were betrayed by Pooley Aspy, and fourteen were executed, 20, 21 Sept. 1586.

BABYSM, a new sect in Persia, founded in 1843 by Mirza Ali Mahomed, an enthusiast, at Shiraz. He termed himself the "Bab," or "gate," of knowledge, and, giving a new exposition of the Koran, claimed to be the incarnate Holy Spirit. The destruction of himself and the greater number of his followers was due to Hossein, one of his disciples, combining political and warlike principles with their spiritual dogmas. The sect was tolerated by the shah Mohammed, but nearly exterminated by his successor in 1848-9. The Bab himself was executed 15 July, 1849. The present head of the sect, still numerous, Beheyah Allah, imprisoned in a Turkish fortress, is said to be well conversant with the Bible, and to propound a doctrine based on it, termed Bab el Huk," gate of truth.

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BACCHANALIA (games in honour of Bacchus) arose in Egypt, and were brought into Greece by Melampos, and called Dionysia, about 1415 B.C. Diodorus. In Rome the Bacchanalia were suppressed, 186 B.C. The priests of Bacchus were called Bacchanals.

BACCON or BACON, see Orleans.

BACHELORS. The Roman censors frequently imposed fines on unmarried men; and men of full age were obliged to marry. The Spartan women at certain games laid hold of old bachelors, dragged them round their altars, and inflicted on them various marks of infamy and disgrace. Vossius. A tax laid upon bachelors in England, twenty-five years of age (varying from 127. 10s. for a duke, to 18. for a common person), lasted from 1695 to 1706. Bachelors (Romanist priests excepted) were subjected to an extra tax on their male and female servants in 1785.

BACKGAMMON. Palamedes of Greece is the reputed inventor of this game, about 1224 B.C. It is said to have been invented in Wales before its conquest. Henry.

BACTRIANA, a province in Asia, was subjugated by Cyrus and formed part of the Persian empire, when conquered by Alexander, 330 B.C. About 254 B.C., Theodotus or Diodotus, a Greek, threw off the yoke of the Seleucidæ, and became king. Eucratides I. reigned prosperously about 181 B.C., and Menander about 126 B.C. The Greek kingdom appears to have been broken up by the irruption of the Scythians shortly after.

BADAJOZ (S. W. Spain). An important barrier fortress, surrendered to the French, under Soult, 11 March, 1811; invested by the British, under lord Wellington, on 16 March, 1812, and stormed and taken on 6 April following. The French retreated in haste.

BADDESDOWN HILL, or Mount Badon, near Bath, where Bede says the Britons defeated the Saxons in 493; others say in 511 or 520. BADEN (S. W. Germany). The house of

Baden is descended from Hermann, regarded as the first margrave (1052), son of Berthold I., duke of Zahringen; but Hermann II. assumed the title,

Feb. 1130. From Christopher, who died 1527, proceeded the branches Baden-Baden and Baden-Dourlach, united in 1771. Baden is an hereditary constitutional monarchy; it joined the German empire by treaty, 15 Nov. 1870. Population, Dec. 1867, 1,434,970.

Louis William, margrave of Baden-Baden, a great
general, born 1665; sallied out from Vienna and
defeated the Turks, 1683; died 1707.

Charles William, margrave of Baden-Dourlach, born
1679, died 1746; succeeded by his son,
Charles Frederic, born 1728; margrave of Baden-
Dourlach, 1738; acquired Baden-Baden, 1771,
made grand-duke by Napoleon, 1806.

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Treaty of Budden :- Landau ceded to France, 7 Sept. 1714
Baden made a grand-duchy, with enlarged terri-
A representative constitution granted by charter,
Republican agitation

18 Aug. 1818 during 1848

Insurrection; joined by the free city Rastatt; the grand-duke flees

May, 1849

The Prussians enter Baden, 15 June; defeat the insurgents commanded by Mierolawski; Rastatt surrenders, 23 July; the grand-duke re-enters Carlsruhe.

18 Aug. 1849 9 July, 1857 28 June, 1859

Arrests for political offences Concordat with the pope signed. Greatly opposed by the chambers; annulled by the grand-duke by a manifesto, securing autonomy to the Catholic and Protestant churches;-signed 7 April, 1860 Interview at Baden-Baden of the emperor Napoleon III. the prince regent of Prussia, and the German kings and princes

16 June, 1860 16 Oct. 1860

The new ecclesiastical law (adopted by the chambers) promulgated

Opposition of the archbishop of Friburg and the clerical party

1860-65

Disputes in the German diet; the grand-duke vainly endeavours to obtain a reconciliation; and remains neutral

June, 1866

Baden joins the Zollverein (which see). July, 1867 Meeting of the chambers; liberal ineasures promised, 24 Sept.: universal suffrage adopted by the second chamber 29 Oct. 1869

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Civil marriage made obligatory 17 Nov. Baden joins Prussia in the war with France, about 20 July, 1870

Gambling houses suppressed; finally closed 31 Oct. 1872

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BAFFIN'S BAY (N. America), discovered by William Baffin, an Englishman, 1616. The extent of this discovery was much doubted, until the expeditions of Ross and Parry proved that Baffin was substantially accurate in his statement. Parry entered Lancaster Sound, and discovered the islands known by his name, in 1818; see North-West Passage.

BAGDAD, in Asiatic Turkey, built by AL Mansour, and made the seat of the Saracen empire, about 762. Taken by the Tartars, and a period put to the Saracen rule, 1258. Often taken by the Persians, and retaken by the Turks, with great slaughter: the latter have held it since 1638.

BAGPIPE, an ancient Greek and Roman instrument. On a piece of ancient Grecian sculpture, now in Rome, a bagpiper is represented

dressed like a modern highlander. Nero is said to have played upon a bagpipe, 51. Our highland regiments retain their pipers.

BAHAMA ISLES (N. America) were the first points of discovery by Columbus. San Salvador was seen by him on the night of 11 Oct. 1492. New Providence was settled by the English in 1629. They were expelled by the Spaniards, 1641; returned, 1666; again expelled in 1703. The isles were formally ceded to the English in 1783. Population in 1861, 35,287; in 1867, about 38,000. The Bahamas profited by blockade-running during the American civil war, 1862-5. Governors, William Rawson, 1864; sir James Walker, 1868; John Pope Hennessy, 1871.

BAHAR (N. India), a province (conquered by Baber in 1530), with Bengal and Orissa, a princely dominion, became subject to the English East India company in 1765 by the treaty of Allahabad for a quit-rent of about 300,000l.

BAIL. By ancient common law, before and since the conquest, all felonies were bailable, till murder was excepted by statute; and by the 3 Edward I. (1275) the power of bailing in treason, and in divers instances of felony, was taken away. Bail was further regulated in later reigns. It is now accepted in all cases, except felony; and where a magistrate refuses bail, it may be granted by a judge. Acts respecting bail passed 1826, and 1852.

BAILIFF, or SHERIFF, said to be of Saxon origin. London had its shire-reve prior to the conquest, and this officer was generally appointed for counties in England in 1079. Hen. Cornehill and Rich. Reynere were appointed bailiffs or sheriffs in London in 1189. Stow. Sheriffs were appointed in Dublin under the name of bailiffs, in 1308; and the name was changed to sheriff in 1548. There are still places where the chief magistrate is called bailiff, as the high bailiff of Westminster. Bumbailiff is a corruption of bound-bailiff, every bailiff being obliged to enter into bonds of security for his good behaviour. Blackstone.

BAIRAM, or BEIRAM, Mahometan festivals. In 1865 the Little Bairam, following the fast of Ramadan (which see), fell on 28 Feb., 1 and 2 March; in 1868, on 26, 27, 28 Jan.; the Great Bairam in 1865, began on 10 May; in 1868, on 10 April.

BAIZE, a species of coarse woollen manufacture, was brought into England by some Flemish or Dutch emigrants who settled at Colchester, in Essex, and had privileges granted them by parliament in 1660. The trade was under the control of a corporation called the governors of the Dutch baize-hall, who examined the cloth previous to sale. Anderson.

BAKER AND BAKEHOUSES; see Bread. BAKERIAN LECTURES, Royal society, originated in a bequest of 100l. by Henry Baker, F.R.S., the interest of which was to be given to one of the fellows, for a scientific discourse to be delivered annually. Peter Woulfe gave the first lecture in 1765. Latterly it has been the custom to nominate as the lecture a paper written by one of the fellows. Davy, Faraday, Tyndall, and other eminent men have given the lecture.

BALAKLAVA, a small town in the Crimea, with a fine harbour, 10 miles S. E. from Sebastopol.

After the battle of the Alma, the allies advanced
upon this place, 26 Sept. 1854.

Battle of Balaklava :-About 12,000 Russians, com-
manded by general Liprandi, attacked and took
some redoubts in the vicinity, which had been
entrusted to about 250 Turks. They next as-
saulted the English, by whom they were compel-
led to retire, mainly through the charge of the
heavy cavalry, led by brigadier Scarlett, under
the orders of lord Lucan. After this, from an
unfortunate misconception of lord Raglan's order,
lord Lucan ordered lord Cardigan, with the light
cavalry, to charge the Russian army, which had
reformed on its own ground with its artillery in
front. The order was most gallantly obeyed, and
great havoc was made on the enemy: but of 670
British horsemen, only 198 returned. (Termed
by Tennyson "The Charge of the Six Hundred.")
The infantry engaged were termed a "thin red
line"
25 Oct. 1854
A sortie from the garrison of Sebastopol led to a
desperate engagement here, in which the Russians
were vigorously repulsed, with the loss of 2000
men killed and wounded; the allies losing about
600
22 March, 1855

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The electric telegraph between London and Balaklava completed

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April, June,,,

A railway between Balaklava and the trenches completed

BALANCE OF POWER, to assure the independency and integrity of states, and control the ambition of sovereigns; a principle said to have been first laid down by the Italian politicians of the 15th century, on the invasion of Charles VIII. of France, 1494. Robertson. It was recognised by the treaty of Münster, 24 Oct. 1648. The arrangements for the balance of power in Europe made in 1815, without the consent of the people of the countries concerned, have been nearly all set aside since 1830.

BALEARIC ISLANDS, in the Mediterranean, called by the Greeks Balearides, and by the Romans Baleares, from the dexterity of the inhabitants at slinging: they include Majorca, Minorca, Iviça, Formentera, Cabrera, Conejera, and other islets. They were conquered by the Romans, 123 B.C.: by the Vandals, about A.D. 426, and formed part of Charlemagne's empire in 799. They were conquered by the Moors about 1005, and held by them till about 1286, when they were annexed by Arragon; see Majorca and Minorca.

BALIZE, see Honduras.

BALKAN, the ancient Hamus, a range of mountains extending from the Adriatic to the Euxine. The passage, deemed impracticable, was completed by the Russians under Diebitsch, during the Russian and Turkish war, 26 July, 1829. An armistice was the consequence; and a treaty of peace was signed at Adrianople, 14 Sept. following.

BALLADS may be traced in the British history to the Anglo-Saxons. Turner. Adhelme, who died 709, is mentioned as the first who introduced ballads into England. "The harp was sent round, and those might sing who could." Bede. Alfred sung ballads. Malmesbury. Canute composed one. Turner. Minstrels were protected by a charter of Edward IV.; but by a statute of Elizabeth they were made punishable among rogues and vagabonds, and sturdy beggars. Viner. "Give me the writing of the ballads, and you may make the laws." Fletcher of Saltoun. The sea-ballads of Dibdin were very popular in the French war; he died 20 Jan. 1833.

BALLARAT, see Australia, 1851.

BALLETS began through the meretricious taste of the Italian courts. One performed at the interview between our Henry VIII. and Francis I. of France in the field of the Cloth of Gold, at Ardres, 1520. Guicciardini. Ballets became popular in France, and Louis XIV. bore a part in one, 1664. They were introduced here with operas early in the 18th century.

BALLINAMUCK, Longford. Here, on 8 Sept. 1798, the Irish rebels and their French auxiliaries were defeated and captured.

BALLOONS.* A just idea of the principle of the construction of balloons was formed by Albert of Saxony, an Augustine monk in the 14th century, and adopted by a Portuguese Jesuit, Francesco Mendoza, who died at Lyons in 1626. The idea is also attributed to Bartolomeo de Guzmao, who died in 1724. The principles of aeronautics include:1, the power of a balloon to rise in the air; 2, the velocity of its ascent; and 3, the stability of its suspension at any given height. The application of sails and rudders has been duly considered, and judged to be futile; but in 1872 Helmholtz thought they might be steered, if moving slowly. Fatal accidents to the voyagers have been estimated at 2 or 3 per cent. The Aeronautical Society of Great Britain, founded with the object of fostering and developing aeronautics and aerology, by the duke of Argyll, Mr. James Glaisher, sir Charles Bright, and others, 12 Jan. 1866.

Francis Lana, a Jesuit, proposed to navigate the air by means of a boat raised by four hollow balls made of thin copper, from which the air had been exhausted

Henry Cavendish discovered that hydrogen gas is 108 times lighter than common air

1670 Joseph Galien suggested the filling a bag with the fine diffuse air of the upper regions of the atmosphere

1755

And soon after Black of Edinburgh filled a bag with hydrogen, which rose to the ceiling of the

1766

room

1767

1782

19 Sept.

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Cavallo filled soap bubbles with hydrogen Joseph Montgolfier made a silken bag ascend with Nov. heated air (first fire balloon) Joseph and Stephen Montgolfier ascend and descend safely by means of a fire balloon at Annonay, for which they received many honours 5 June, 1783 First ascent in a balloon filled with hydrogen, at Paris, by MM. Robert and Charles 27 Aug. Joseph Montgolfier ascends in a balloon inflated with smoke of burnt straw and wool First aerial voyage in a fire balloon-Pilâtre de Rozier and the marquis d'Arlandes 21 Nov. Second ascent of Charles in a hydrogen balloon to the height of 9770 feet 1 Dec. Mr. Tytler ascended in a Montgolfier balloon at Edinburgh 27 Aug. 1784 Ascents become numerous: Andreani, 25 Feb.; Blanchard, 2 March; Guyton Morveau, the chemist, 25 April and 12 June; Fleurant and Madame Thible (the first female aeronaut), 28 June; the duke of Chartres (Philip Egalité) 19 Sept.

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The first ascent in England, made by Lunardi, at Moorfields, London 15 Sept. Blanchard and Jeffries ascend at Dover; cross the Channel; alight near Calais 7 Jan. 1785 The first ascent in Ireland, from Ranelagh gardens, Dublin . 19 Jan. Rozier and Romain killed in their descent near Boulogne; the balloon took fire 15 June, Parachutes constructed and used by Blanchard,

Aug.

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Garnerin's narrow escape when descending in one in London. 2 Sept. 1802

* "Astra Castra; Experiments and Adventures in the Atmosphere; by Hatton Turnor," a copious work, appeared in 1865.

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Mr. Wise and three others ascended from St. Louis (after travelling 1150 miles they descended in Jefferson county, New York, nearly dead) 23 June, 1859 Nadar's great balloon (largest ever made) when fully inflated contained 215,363 cubic feet of gas; the car, a cottage in wicker work, raised 35 soldiers at Paris; Nadar hoped by means of a screw to steer a balloon in the heavens; his first ascent, with 14 persons, successful 4 Oct. 1863 His second ascent; voyagers injured; saved by presence of mind of M. Jules Godard; descend at Nieuburg, Hanover 12 Oct. Nadar and his balloon at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham Nov. "" Society for promoting aerial navigation formed at M. Nadar's, at Paris; president, M. Barral, 15 Jan. 1864 Godard's great Montgolfier or fire balloon ascends, 28 July and 3 Aug. Ascent of Nadar and others in his great balloon at Brussels 26 Sept. Mr. Coxwell ascends from Belfast in a new balloon; several persons are injured by the balloon becoming uncontrollable; it escapes . 3 July, 1865 Mr. Coxwell said to have made 550 successful ascents. up to April, 1867 An aerial screw machine (helicopteric) suggested, in Paris, 1863; described by Dr. J. Bell Pettigrew, in London, at the Royal Institution, 22 March, Mr. Hodsman crossed the Channel from Dublin, and descended in Westmoreland 22 April, A great balloon exhibited at Ashburnham-park, London, escaped, and was captured at Bouldon, Bucks. 25 May, 1869 Charles Green, aeronaut, said to have made about 600 ascents, died aged 84 27 Mar. 1870 Dupuy de Lome at Vincennes ascended with his navigable" balloon, with 13 persons; experiment reported to be successful 2 Feb. 1871

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