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In the U. S. in 1850, the number of spindles employed in the five New England States was 2,751,078; in 11 other States, 236,480. Number of spindles in the whole country in 1860, 5,235,727.

COTTON-GIN. This invention, in 1793, by Eli Whitney of New Haven, gave an extraordinary impetus to the culture of cotton in the U. S. It cleans and prepares 300 lbs. per day; by the old mode only a single pound a day could be cleansed.

COURTS-MARTIAL, U. S. By Act of Congress, May 29, 1830, officers commanding distinct posts, and all general officers, can convene Courts-Martial. There are several limitations to the act. The number forming a court is from 5 to 13. Great numbers of these Courts were in session during the late war. In 1866, 8,188 records of Courts-Martial and Military Commissions were received and reviewed at the Bureau of Military Justice, Washington, D. C.

COURT, SUPREME, OF THE U. S. By Act of Congress, July 23, 1866, no vacancy in this Court is to be filled, until the number is reduced to one Chief Justice and six associate Justices. Before this there were eight associate Justices.

The U. S. is divided into nine districts for Circuit Courts.

CRIME, NEW YORK CITY. Who Furnish our Criminals and Paupers. A recent publication states that of the criminals in New York city for twenty-one months, 31,088 were natives of this country, while 89,589 were foreigners; of whom 60,442 were Irish, 9,488 Germans, and 4,000 English. Of 28,821 persons admitted to the alms-house in ten years, 22,468 were foreigners; 15,948 were Irish, 1,240 Germans, and 1,297 English. During the same time, of 50,015 admitted to Bellevue hospital, 41,851 were foreigners. Of 4,335 inmates of the lunatic asylum, 3,360 were foreigners. Of 251,344 committed to the city prison, only 59,385 were natives, while 86,431 professed to be members of the church of Rome. -Number of arrests in New York city, in 1865, 39,616.-11,222 were convicted in the court of Special Sessions. During the war, there was a marked diminution of punished crime throughout the country. See Prisons.

CRYSTAL PALACE IN NEW YORK, built chiefly of iron and glass, in form of a cross, with a dome, was commenced Oct. 1852. Exhibition opened to the public (Pres. Pierce being present) August, 1853. The building destroyed by fire, with its contents, as exhibited by Amer. Institute, Sept. 1859.

CUSTOMS (DUTIES) IN THE UNITED STATES. The amounts collected were, in

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DAGUERREOTYPES. In 1855 not less than 15,000 persons were engaged in this business in the U. S. In 1867 the number must be nearer 30,000. The art of photography on paper, however, is rapidly superseding the former use of metal plates. See Photography.

DEAF AND DUMB, BLIND, AND INSANE PERSONS, IN THE UNITED STATES. In 1840 there were 6,916 blind persons, or 1 in 2,467 of the population; 7,659 deaf and dumb, or 1 in 2,228; 17,434 insane and idiotic, or 1 in 979. There were in the United States 23 asylums for the insane, with about 2,840 patients. In the United States in 1860 there were 14,269 Deaf and Dumb persons. The Institution for such persons situated at N. Y. City, is the largest for the "instruction of deaf-mutes only, in its accommodations and number of pupils, in the world," (National Almanac). Number of teachers in Dec., 1863, 16, of whom 8 were deaf-mutes. Number of pupils 332. The asylum was founded in 1817. Whole number of graduates 1300. In 1862 there were 22 institutions in the country for the deaf and dumb, with 130 teachers and 2000 pupils. Their annual support requires about $350,000, of which $300,000 is appropriated by the Legislatures of 29 States. Among the most prominent and successful of the philanthropists who have promoted the education and good treatment of the above persons in the United States are Dr. Amariah Brigham, Dr. Butler, and Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, of Hartford; Dr. S. G. Howe, of Boston.

DEATH. Punishment of, U. S., is inflicted for the crimes of murder, treason, and arson in the first degree. Capital punishment is abolished in the State of Wisconsin.

DEBT, NATIONAL, U S. See National Debt.

DECIMAL SYSTEM of Coinage, Weights, &c., was established in France in 1790, and shortly after in other countries. The subject was brought before the English Parliament in 1824, 1838, 1843, 1853, 1854, 1855. The decimal currency was adopted in Canada, 1858. International Decimal Association formed at London, 1855. Congress of the U. S. passed lawg legalizing the use of the Metric system in the country, in 186-, without at once substituting it for our present system. It is already used in some arts and trades. By act of Congress, July 27, 1866, the Secretary of the Treasury is to furnish each State with one set of the standard weights and measures of the Metric System.

DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence (North Carolina) was passed in May, 1775, two months before that drawn up by Jefferson at Philadelphia.

DEGREES, U. S. Academical degrees are marks of distinction conferred on students, in testimony of their proficiency in arts and sciences. They are of pontifical origin.-Bouvier. Graduates of American colleges are Bachelors of Arts, A. B. By a further course of study for three years, they become Master of Arts, A. M. The title Doctor of Medicine, M. D. is conferred on students on their graduation from Medical schools; but Doctor of Divinity (D. D.), and of Law (LL. D.), is an honorary degree conferred by Faculties on distinguished persons.

DELAWARE. The smallest of the U. States except R. Island. First settled in 1630, by the Swedes and Finns under the patronage of Gustavus Adolphus, and received the name of New Sweden. They were subdued in 1655 by the Dutch, who in turn surrendered it, with New Netherlands, to the English in 1664, and then named Delaware. The Duke of York granted it to Wm. Peun, in 1682, and it remained nominally united to Pennsylvania until 1775. This State bore an honorable part in the Revolution, and suffered much in the struggle. She adopted the Constitution of the U. S. by a unanimous vote in Convention, Dec. 3, 1787. Population,-1790, 59,094; 1840, 78,085; including 2,605 slaves. Population in 1850, 89,242, and 2,290 slaves; in 1860, 110,548, and 1,805 slaves. The Delaware Breakwater, two-thirds of a mile long, cost the Government $2,000,000.

DETROIT, MICHIGAN, U. S. Established as a military post by the French, 1670. Came into the possession of the British, 1760. In 1783 surrendered to the United States. In 1812, captured by the British, but evacuated in the same year. In 1805, the town was completely destroyed by fire. It was the capital of the State until 1850. Population in 1865, about 60,000.

DESIGN, ACADEMY OF, oF N. Y. Founded in 1826. A beautiful building, in the Gothic style, was erected in 1863. Architect, P. B. Wight; cost, $150,000. There is an annual exhibition of paintings, lasting from April to July.

DICTIONARY, U. S. Noah Webster's great American Dictionary of the English language, in two quarto volumes, was first published at New Haven, in 1828. It was reprinted in Lon don, under the supervision of E. H. Barker, 1832. The revised edition of Webster's Dictionary, in one volume quarto, was issued by its present proprietors (Messrs. Merriam), in 1844–5. A new and enlarged edition appeared in 1864: it contains 114,000 words, and 3,000 illustrations. Worcester's edition, in quarto, was published in 1860. It is also illustrated, and contains 104,000 words. The former is edited at Yale College, the latter at Cambridge, Mass. DIPLOMACY OF THE UNITED STATES. List of ministers plenipotentiary to Great Britain and France.

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DIPHTHERIA, U. S. The number of deaths by this disease in New York State, from Dec. 1864 to June 1865, was 2942.

DIRECTORY, NEW YORK CITY. The earliest published was in 1786: a small volume of eighty-two pages, printed by Shepherd Kollock, Wall street. The names of the individuals and firms include about 900, and occupy thirty-three pages, the remainder being filled with general statistics of the city, United States Government, Post Office Regulations, &c. In his address, the editor states it was the "first directory ever attempted in this country." The New York Historical Society possesses a complete set from its first publication. The Directory of 1866-7 contains 176,511 names; increase of 10,367 over 1865-6. The volume for 1867-8 contains 177,317 names; a further increase of 806 only.

DISPENSARIES, U. S. There are eleven in New York City. The oldest was founded in 1795. The poor receive treatment and medicine in them free of charge.

DISTILLATION, U. S. The number of Distilleries in the U. S. in 1860 was 1,138, employing a capital of $24,253,000. Number in New York State in 1865, 67. The consumption of distilled spirits in U. S. in 1865 was about 40,000,000 gallons. It appeared in that year that for every three gallons that paid the revenue tax, five evaded the payment. The revenue amounted to $29,198,000.

DIVORCE FOR ADULTERY. In this country adultery is a ground of divorce in all the States. In Massachusetts, Maine, and New Jersey, wilful desertion for five years, and in some other States desertion for two and three years, and some other causes, are ground for divorce. Divorce has been granted most frequently in Vermont, Connecticut, and Indiana. In Connecticut cruel treatment is a ground of absolute divorce. The Ministers of the Gospel in that State have called the attention of the Legislature to the laxity of its Divorce Laws (1867).

DOGS, LAWS ABOUT, U. S. In New York dogs are required to be muzzled during June, July, and August. A reward of fifty cents is given for every dog brought to the pound unmuzzled. Unless redeemed in 24 hours they are drowned. In 1866, 4,819 dogs were drowned in New York City, at an expense of $3,000.

DUELLING. The most noted American duels were these: two during the Revolution, viz., Gen. Charles Lee and Col. John Laurens; and Gen. Cadwallader and Conway (1778). Gen. Greene was challenged by a Capt. Gunn of Georgia, but refused to fight, and his refu sal was approved by Washington. Gen. Hamilton killed by Aaron Burr, July 11, 1804. Com. Decatur killed by Com. Barron, March 22, 1820. Henry Clay encountered John Randolph, April 8, 1826. Gen. Jackson killed Mr. Dickinson, and had other duels. Col. Benton killed a Mr. Lucas, and had other duels. Cilley, of Maine, killed by Graves, of Kentucky, both mem. of Cong.), 1838. Dewitt Clinton exchanged five shots with John Swartwout, 1802. See Millingen's Hist. of Duelling, and Sabine's Notes on Duels, 1855.

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EDUCATION IN THE U. S. has been largely promoted and systematized since 1835 by the efforts and publications of Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, Dan P. Page, Alonzo Potter, Barnas Sears, and others. Am. Inst. of Instruction organized at Boston Aug. 19, 1830, and has held annual meetings since. During the last two years of the war, 1864-5, the very large sum of $848,000 was donated to New England colleges. The New England seminaries for young ladies meanwhile received less than a fiftieth part of the above noble subsidy. The munificent donation of George Peabody ($2,000,000) to promote education in the Southern States was confided to a Board of Trustees, Robert C. Winthrop of Boston, President, 1867; and Barnas Sears, President of Brown University, accepted the general agency of this Trust. See Colleges and Schools.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH. Prof. Morse's services to the world as the originator of the practical application of electro-magnetism to telegraphing, were acknowledged by the French Government in 1859, by the voluntary presentation to him of $80,000 (?); and by public honors and rewards from other governments of Europe in 1860.

ELECTRIC TELEGRAPH LINES. Ir. 1860, in America, 45,000 miles; in England, 10,000;

in France, 8,000; in Germany and Austria, 10,000; in Prussia, 4,000; in Russia, 5,000; in the rest of Europe, 7,650; in India, 5,000; in Australia, 12,000; elsewhere, 500. Total in 1858, 96,350. Over all the lines in the United States the number of messages per year is estimated at 4,000,000. It is supposed that a telegraph could be laid around the globe for less than half the cost of the Erie railroad. See Submarine Telegraph. In the United States the overland line from Missouri to California was completed Oct. 22, 1861. A cable was laid across Chesapeake Bay from Fortress Monroe in 1861. Ninety five lines of telegraph are laid under American rivers.

EMBARGO IN THE UNITED STATES. Embargo on all vessels in the ports of the United States, passed by Congress with reference to the quarrel with Great Britain after the attack on the U. S. frigate Chesapeake, 1807. Repealed, and non-intercourse act passed, 1809. Embargo again laid for 90 days, April, 1812. War declared June 19, 1812.

EMIGRATION TO THE UNITED STATES. The total number of alien emigrants who arrived in the U. S. from 1819 to 1856, was 4,212,624. From 1784 to 1819, the number did not probably exceed 150,000; in all, say 5,000,000 arrived from 1784 up to January, 1859. Of this number about 2,600,000 came from Great Britain and Ireland; 1,600,000 from Germany; 200,000 from France; 50,000 from Sweden and Norway; 40,000 from Switzerland, and 18,000 from Holland. (Appleton's Cyclo.) The commission for receiving emigrants at Castle Garden, N. Y. City, was established in 1847. From that time to 1867, 3,658,800 emigrants have landed there. See Aliens.

ENCYCLOPEDIA. The Iconographic Cyclopedia, 6 vols., based on a German work, published at New York, 1853-4. The English Cyclopedia (Charles Knight), based on the Penny Cyclopedia, 1855-60. The 8th edition of Encyclop. Britannica completed 1860. Appleton's Cyclopedia, 1857-62, 16 vols. (N. York). Appleton's "Annual Cyclopedia," begins with the year 1861, and is a complete review of the great events in the world, of each year. The volumes, 1861-5, contain a valuable history of the war.

ENLISTMENT, U. S. The following is a list of the various "calls" for troops by the Government during the war:

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There were other calls for 30 and 100 days' men. The whole number called for was 2,759,049; total obtained, 2,656,553. By Act of March 3, 1863, called the "Conscription Act," the President was authorized to draft troops. The act provided for an enrollment, a draft, the reception of substitutes, and arrest of deserters. About 3,000,000 men between the ages of 20 and 45 were enrolled. The calls from Oct. 17, 1863, were orders for drafts. But probably not more than 50,000 drafted men performed personal service. Substitutes were obtained. "The Substitute Fund" of the Government, consisting of money paid in as a release from service, and which was used as a "Bounty Fund" for volunteers, amounted to $25,902,029. See Army of U. S.

EPISCOPAL CHURCH IN THE UNITED STATES. Episcopacy established in New York by law, 1693; introduced into Connecticut, 1706. The first bishops of the Protestant Episcopal Church in America were Bishops White of Pennsylvania and Provost of New York, consecrated in London, 1787. First Episcopal convention, 1789. Bishops of Vermont, New Jersey, Kentucky, and Ohio consecrated at New York, Nov. 2, 1832.

EQUITY COURTS OF U. S. In New England, New York, and several other States, the same Judge may try cases of Equity as well as of Law. There are no Chancellors in these States. In New York the distinction between "actions at law and suits in equity," was abolished in 1849. In New Jersey, Delaware, and other States, the English form of Chancery Courts and practice is still preserved (1867).

ESQUIRE, TITLE OF, U. S. A title applied by courtesy to officers of almost every des cription, to members of the bar, and others. No one is entitled to it by law, and, therefore, it confers no distinction in law.-Bouvier.

ETHNOLOGY. The study of the relations of the different divisions of mankind to each other. It is of recent origin. Balbi's Ethnographic Atlas was published in 1826, and Dr.

Prichard's great work, Researches on the Physical History of Mankind, 1841-7. The London Ethnological Society, established in 1843, publishes its transactions. Dr. R. S. Lathan's works, on the Ethnology of the British Empire, appeared in 1851-2. The American Ethnolo gical Society was founded in New York in 184-. Albert Gallatin was its first president. It has published 3 or 4 vols. of "Transactions." The works of Schoolcraft on the history of American Indians are copious and valuable. The belief in the original unity of the human Jace has been opposed in the works of Nott and Gliddon (Ethnological Researches), Agassiz and others, 1854-9. Mr. George Peabody, in 1866, donated to Yale College $150,000 to maintain a museum and Professorship of Archæology and Ethnology, also a like amount for the same purpose to Harvard College.

EXCISE LAW, U. S. See Internal Revenue.

EXCHANGE (MERCHANTS') IN NEW YORK. The present building, on the site of the one destroyed in the great fire of 1835, was commenced in 1836, and finished in 1840. It is of blue granite, and cost $1,800,000. In 1864 it was purchased by the U. S. government for use as the Custom House. That of Boston, also of Quincy granite, finished in 1846.

EXPLORING EXPEDITION (U. S.), consisting of the Vincennes, sloop of war; Peacock, ditto; Porpoise, brig; Relief, Flying Fish, and Sea Gull, smaller vessels, under Lieut. Wilkes, U. S. N., sailed from Hampton Roads, Va., Aug. 19th, 1838. Antartic continent discovered, July 19, 1839. Attack on the Fejees for murdering two of the officers, July 25, 1846. The Peacock lost on the bar of Columbia river, July, 1841. The Vincennes (flagship) returned to New York, after an absence of nearly four years, June 11, 1842. Captain Wilkes's Narrative of the Expedition, in 6 vols. imp. 8vo. and quarto, was published in 1845. The scientific reports of the expedition form about 20 quarto and folio volumes. EXPORTS AND IMPORTS OF THE U. S.

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FENIANS (See p. 297). A society of Irishmen in the U. S. and in Ireland, pledged to work for the liberation of Ireland. Organized in 1857. First attracted notice in the U. S. in 1863. In that year, Nov., a Fenian Congress met in Chicago, composed of 200 delegates. In 1865 the regular members of the order numbered 80,000. "Head Centre " Stephens figured conspicuously as the leader. In 1866, Fenian meetings were held all over the country. In the Spring considerable numbers assembled at Buffalo, N. Y., and St. Albans, Vermont, apparently with hostile intentions towards Canada. June 1, 1866, a body of them crossed over and engaged in a skirmish with Canadian troops. They were compelled to re-cross with slight loss. The Fenian officers were arrested by the U. S. government, and the men sent to their homes. In 1867, the excitement over this organization had greatly subsided. Attempts to create a revolt in Ireland proved unsuccessful. Several of the leaders were arrested and tried and condemned to death, but the sentences were commuted to imprisonment for life. This movement was unquestionably originated and carried on by men of Irish birth and immediate descent, and was not an American movement, as indicated by Haydn, p. 297.

FIRES IN THE U. S. The losses by fire from 1855 to 1865 inclusive were $214,588,000. In 1865 there were 354 fires, where the loss was upwards of $20,000, at which property was destroyed to the amount of $43,139,000. The largest fire of late years was at Portland, Maine, July 4, 1866. 1600 buildings were burned; loss, $9,000,000; insurance, $3,500,000. Fire in Nashville, Tenn., July 24, 1866, loss, $1,000,000. Colt's Armory, Hartford, burned, Feb. 8, 1864; loss, $1,000,000. Academy of Music and University Medical College, N. Y., burned, May 21, 1866. Pike's Opera House, Cincinnati, March 23, 1866. The Smithsonian Institution, Washington, partially burned Jan. 24, 1865. The Meteorological Department suffered heavily.

FIRE DEPARTMENTS, with steam engines and paid employees. In 1867, the following cities had introduced the new system :

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