FIREARMS, U. S.

The Sharp's Rifle was the first breech-loader used in this country. During the war, great improvements were made in this branch of ordnance. The Spencer Repeating Rifle, patented in 1860, carries seven cartridges. The Henry Rifle can be fired 15 times before reloading; patented 1861. 120 shots have been fired from it in 5 minutes, including the time for re-loading. The standard musket used in the U. S. Army, is the Springfield Rifle, muzzle-loader. They are being converted into breech-loaders at the arsenal (1866-7).

FLORIDA, now one of the United States, was discovered by Sebastian Cabot, sailing under the English flag, in 1497. Ponce de Leon, a Spanish adventurer from Hispaniola, explored the country 1512 and 1516. In 1539, Hernando de Soto, who had been an officer under Pizarro, overran the peninsula with an armed force, but most of his followers were cut off a few years after. In 1763, Florida was ceded to Great Britain by Spain, in exchange for Havana. The Spanish reconquered it in 1781, and ceded it to the United States in 1819. It was admitted into the Union in 1845. First war with the Seminoles in Florida in 1818, when General Jackson subdued them. Another protracted and expensive warfare then commenced and continued until 1842. General Jessup, General Taylor, and others, were engaged in it. The Seminole chief, Osceola, was captured, 1837. Population in 1830, 34,723; in 1840, 54,477, including 25,717 slaves. Passed an ordinance of secession from the U. S., Jan. 11, 1861, and seized the U. S. Navy Yard at Pensacola. Population, 1850, 87,445. In 1860, 81,885 free, and 63,800 slaves. Population in 1866, 77,747 white; colored, 62,677, total, 140,424. Wm. Marvin appointed Provisional Governor of the State, July 13, 1865.

FRANKING PRIVILEGE, U. S. This privilege was granted to the widows of Presidents Madison and Harrison. An act granting the same privilege to Mrs. Lincoln, passed Feb. 10, 1866.

FRENCH WAR IN NORTH AMERICA. The first war between France and England, which was carried on also by the American colonies, 1689. The French destroyed Schenectady, N. Y., Casco, Me., &c., 1690; but were defeated by Schuyler at La Prairie, 1691. Peace of Ryswick, 1697. Queen Anne's war," 1702. French and Indians ravaged Maine, 1703. French and Spanish invade Carolina, 1706. Expedition from New England against the French in Port Royal, 1707; and against Canada, 1710; both failed. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. Another war declared by England, 1744; Louisbourg and Cape Breton taken by the English colonists, 1745. Peace, 1749. French encroachment on English colonies, 1750, leads to the noted French war, 1752-3. Washingtou's mission, 1754. Braddock's defeat, 1755. Oswego, &c., taken by French, 1756, and Fort William Henry, 1757. Louisbourg taken by the English General Amherst, and Fort Du Quesne by General Forbes, 1758. Ticonderoga, Crown Point, Niagara, and Quebec, taken by the English (Sir W. Johnson and General Wolfe), 1759. Canada surrendered to Great Britain, Sept. 8, 1760, and secured to her by the peace of Paris, 1763. French alliance with the United States, in the war of the revolution, Feb. 6, 1778. French revolution and politics, caused dissensions in the United States, 1793-6. French spoliations on American commerce, 1797.

FUGITIVE SLAVE BILL, introduced in the U. S. Senate by Mr. Mason of Va., and passed, Sept. 1850. It imposed a fine of $1,000 and 6 mos. imprisonment on any person harboring fugitive slaves or aiding their escape. It was declared by the Sup. Court of Wisconsin to be unconstitutional, Feb. 3, 1855. This law was repealed by Congress, June 23, 1864.

G

GEOGRAPHY, U. S. The N. Y. Geographical and Statistical Society was incorporated April 3, 1852. It publishes occasionally a Journal chiefly of original papers.

GEOLOGY, WORKS ON, U. S. "Geology of the Globe" by Fref. E. Hitchcock, 1853. Prof. St. John's Elements of Geology, 1855. "Text book of Geology," Prof. Dana, 1863. Besides these text books there are many treatises and reports on Geology which are to be found in most of the large libraries in the country, such as Prof. Hall's Geology of New York; Owen's, of Indiana; Percival's, of Wisconsin; Hitchcock's, of Massachusetts; each in quarto volumes.

GEORGIA, one of the United States, was granted by George II. to Gen. Oglethorpe, who with forty followers founded Savannah, Feb. 1, 1733. Savannah taken by the British in the

revolutionary war, Dec. 29, 1778; the town and State evacuated by them in July 1782. The State unanimously adopted the Federal Constitution, Jan. 2, 1788. Population in 1790 32,584; in 1840, 691,392, including 280,944 slaves. Staple commodities, cotton and rice. Population in 1860 (including 462,198 slaves) 1,057,286. Act of "Secession " passed Jan. 19, 1861. Debt of the State in Oct. 1866, $5,706,500.

GETTYSBURG, BATTLE OF, U. S. Fought July 1, 2, 3, 1863, at Gettysburg, Penn. near the Maryland line. Union forces 60,000 and 200 guns; Confederate about 80,000. On the first day the 1st and 11th corps (U. S. forces) were attacked and beaten by the superior numbers of the enemy: Maj. Gen. Reynolds (U. S. A.) killed. On the second day, the 12th, 3d and 2d corps came up, and the whole under command of General Meade formed lite on Cemetery Ridge. No fighting until 4. P. M. when a terrible artillery fire was opened by the Rebels, and fierce assaults made on the left and then on the right of the Union Army. The contest was heavy and doubtful until evening, when the enemy retired. On the third day the same furious charging and stubborn resistance was continued. The Union army bravely held its ground, and at night the enemy retreated. Union loss 2,834 killed, 13,709 wounded, 6,643 missing. In the brief campaign which ended with this battle, the Rebels lost 3 guns, 41 standards, 13,621 prisoners, besides an enormous number of killed and wounded. Over 6000 men, loyal and rebel, were buried on the field. The Union victory was of immense importance to the country at that critical period.

GOLD AND SILVER. The exports of gold from the U. S. in recent years were as follows (stated in millions of dollars.)

1850. 1851. 1852. 1853, 1854. 1855. 1856. 1857. 1858. 1859. 1860. 1861. 1862. 1863. 1864, 1865, 1866.

7. 29. 42. 278. 41. 56. 45. 69. 53, 64. 666. 28. 36. 63. 69. 54. 86. "GREENBACKS," U. S. A term given to legal tender notes issued by the U. S. Treas ury, in 1862. So called on account of the green print on their backs. All national bank notes are known by this name. The merit of the green tint is that it cannot be photographed or in any way counterfeited. It was first discovered by a Canadian. The "American Bank Note Company" print the notes.

GUTTA PERCHA is procured from the sap of the Isonandra Gutta, a large forest tree, growing in the Malayan Peninsula, and on the islands near it. Previous to 1844, the very name of gutta percha was unknown to European commerce. In that year two cwt. were shipped experimentally from Singapore. The exportation of gutta percha from that port rose in 1845 to 169 piculs (the picul is 1,330 lbs.); in 1846, to 5,364; in 1847, to 9,292; and in the first seven months of 1818, to 6,768 piculs. In the first four and a half years of the trade, 21,598 piculs of gutta percha, valued at $274,190, were shipped at Singapore, the whole of which were sent to England, with the exception of 15 piculs to Mauritius, 470 to the continent of Europe, and 922 to the United States. The great variety of articles for domestic use, the ornamental arts, &c., to which this material has been applied, has given employment to thousands, not only in the factories of our own and other countries, but also to the gatherers in the Indian Archipelago, with whom it at present constitutes one of their most profitable articles of export. In 1848, S. T. Armstrong, of Brooklyn, N. Y., first applied it for coating telegraph wires. J. J. Craven, of Newark, N. J., claims to have ap plied it thus at the same time or before. Charles Goodyear used it, in connection with caoutchouc, for various articles of common use; a large boat made of gutta percha was exhibited in New York, 1858.

H

HABEAS CORPUS. The constitution of the U. S. provides that this law (adopted from that of England) "shall not be suspended unless when in case of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it," 1787. President Lincoln authorized Gen. Scott to suspend the privilege if it became necessary, April 27, 1861. In Sept., 1862, it was not allowed to relieve persons arrested by military authority for disloyal practices. The President (authorized by express Act of Congress) proclaimed a general suspension of the privilege of habeas corpus, to "continue throughout the duration of the rebellion," Sept. 15, 1863. C. L. Vallandigham, ex-member of Congress, being arrested for disloyal utterances, was refused the privilege of the writ, and sent into the rebel lines, May, 1863. Great excitement among his friends and sympathisers in the country.

HANOVER. Population in 1864, 1,923,492, of whom 1,584,700 belonged to the Lutheran church, and 226,000 to the Catholic. The army numbered 26,900 men. 3,618 vessels of all kinds composed the merchant navy. This State was annexed to Prussia, Aug., 1866, against its will.

HARPER'S FERRY, VA. A village at the junction of the Potomac and Shenandoah. Population in 1860, about 5,000. The scene of "John Brown's raid." On Oct. 17, 1859, he with 16 white and 5 colored men seized the U. S. arsenal at this point, took 60 citizens prisoners, and gave out as his object "to free the slaves." The insurgents were overcome on the morning of the 18th. Those who did not escape or were not killed, were executed. This affair created intense excitement throughout the country. At the breaking out of the rebellion, Lieut. Jones evacuated and blew up the arsenal, April 18, 1861. Sept. 16, 1862, Col. Miles and 11,000 U. S. troops surrender to "Stonewall Jackson," at Harper's Ferry. In 1867 it was decided not to re-establish the arsenal there.

HARVARD COLLEGE, U. S. Established 1638, at Cambridge, Mass. Denomination, Enitarian. In 1863, it had 44 instructors; 814 students in all departments; 7,440 alumni, of whom 2,679 were living. Value of its buildings and endowments, over $2,000,000. Annual expenses of the University, $130,000. Its commencement occurs the third Wednesday of July. President: Rev. Thomas Hill, D.D.

HEALTH, BOARD OF, N. Y. Act passed by the Legislature of New York, Feb. 26, 1866, establishing a "Board of Health and Sanitary District for the preservation of life and health, and to prevent the spread of disease." It was organized March 5, 1866; Dr. E. B. Dalton, Superintendent. The district includes the counties of New York, King, Westchester, Richmond, and part of Queens. First report, Nov. 1, 1866. It issued 22,592 orders requiring nuisances to be removed. Death rate in New York City, 1 in 33.33; in London, 1 in 45.

HISTORICAL SOCIETIES, U. S. The one in New York City was organized Dec. 10, 1804, and incorporated Feb. 10, 1809. It now numbers nearly 2,000 members. After occu pying rooms many years in the New York University Buildings, it was removed in 1857 to a new fire proof building on 2d avenue, corner of 11th street, which was dedicated Nov. 17 of that year. The Society possesses a library of over 30,000 volumes particularly rich in historical works and manuscripts, a choice gallery of paintings, and a collection of antiquities, coins, medals, and charts. Among its collections are a series of large tablets of Assyrian sculpture, the gift of James Lenox, Esq. The Massachusetts Historical Society, founded 1791, is limited to fifty members. This Society has a valuable library, including a very choice collection of books in English literature, bequeathed to it by the late Thomas Dowse, of Cambridgeport, a leather-dresser, whose library was one of the best of its kind in the country. The Massachusetts Historical Society has published about 30 vols. of There are historical societies also in nearly every State in the Union, several of which have valuable collections, and have published transactions.

transactions and historical collections.

HOMEOPATHY. This science-the essential characteristic of which consists in the use of such remedies against any disease as, in a healthy person, would produce a similar but not precisely the same disease its fundamental principle being similia similibus curanturwas introduced by Samuel Hahnemann, a native of Meissen, in Saxony (born April 10, 1755, died at Paris, 1843). The first periodical organ cf the system was established 1822. Although violently attacked and ridiculed by "allopathic" practitioners, the system was prac tised in 1860 by about 1,200 physicians in Europe, and 2,500 in the United States. has 3 hospitals, 3 colleges, and 3 journals, and about 30 societies in the U. S., and all these are numerous in England, France, and Germany (1861). An attempt to establish a State Homœopathic Hospital, in Connecticut, was strenuously opposed (1866). The matter was compromised, the Legislature allowing the Homeopathists certain rights in the hospitals.

It

HYDROPATHY. Hydropathic Society formed in London, 1842. First Hydro. establishment in U. S., at 63 Barclay st., N. Y., 1844. Those at New Lebanon, N. Y., and Brattleboro, Vt., opened 1845.

I

ICE TRADE, THE, in the United States, was commenced by Frederick Tudor, of Boston, in 1805, who shipped the first cargo to Martinique and the first to Calcutta, in 1833. The ice-houses of the dealers near Boston at present are capable of containing 141,332 tons. In 1854, Boston shipped 156,540 tons. In New York in 1855, 305,000 tons were stored up. The exports of Ice from 1860 to 1866, averaged about 48,000 tons. During the four years ending June 30, 1861, $712,000 worth was exported from the U. S. In 1856, $8,000,000 were invested in the ice trade, giving employment to 8,000 or 10,000 men. Ice is not subject to duty in the U. S. 600,000 tons were provided for the consumption of N. Y. City in 1867.

IDAHO, U. S. Organized as a territory March 3, 1863. Area, 326,373 square miles. Population in 1864 about 24,000. This territory has been settled rapidly by adventurers and

gold seekers, within the past few years (1867). Boise City is the capital. Estimated product of gold and silver in 1865, $7,000,000.

ILLINOIS. One of the United States, first settled on the Kaskaskia and Cahokia by the French from Canada. Ceded to Great Britain at the peace of 1763. Chiefly settled by emigrants from other States since 1800. In 1789 it was part of the Northwest territory. Ir 1809 it was made a separate territory, and 1818 admitted into the Union, being the 23d State. Population in 1810, 12,282; in 1830, 157,575; in 1840, 476,183. It is a free State, and has always been so. The chief products are grain and Indian corn; it has inexhaustible leadmines. New constitution adopted August 31, 1847. Population in 1850, 851,470; in 1860, 1,691,233. Increase 1840-50, 80 per cent.; 1850-60, 99 per cent. Population in 1865, 2,151,007; gain since 1860 of 459,774. Assessed valuation of property in 1865, $391,683,284. From April 1861 to Jan. 1863 the State placed in the field 119,400 men. Amount expended for school purposes in 1862, $2,007,000. Number of schools 9,811. There are in the State 1 institution for deaf-mutes, 1 for the insane, 1 for the blind.

IMPORTS, U. S. The value of imports during the war greatly decreased. In 1860 they amounted to $362,000,000; in 1862, $205,000,000; in 1865, $234,000,000; in 1866, $437,000,000. See Exports.

INCOME TAX, U. S. Levied by act of Congress July 1, 1862. Tax on incomes from $600 to $10,000, 3 per cent; over $10,000, 5 per cent. Receipts from this source in 1863, $455,741; in 1864, $14,919,280; in 1865, $20,740,451; in 1866, 861,071,932. In 1866 a single merchant of New York paid the sum of $107,125 as a tax on his income for 1865, the income being stated by himself as amounting to $4,071,250; probably the largest personal tax of the kind ever paid. The law of 1866 taxed all incomes over $1,000, 5 per cent.

INDIANA. One of the western United States, first settled at Vincennes by the French; ceded to England at the peace of 1763, but no settlement made by them until 1787. Was part of the N. W. Territory in 1801. Suffered much during the war of 1812. See battle of Tippecanoe. Admitted into the Union in 1816. Population in 1800, 5,641; in 1820, 147,178; in 1840, 685,866; in 1860, 1,350,428. Number of public schools 6,098 in 1862. Common school fund $4,991,202. The State sent 195,147 men to the war. In 1865 the Legis lature voted that negroes could be competent witnesses in courts. The "fillibuster" Gen. Morgan invaded the State, July 9, 1863. In 24 hours 60,000 men offered their services to drive him out. He effected no damage and retreated rapidly.

INDIANS, U. S. According to the best data in the possession of the Indian Department, at Washington, there are now (1867) between 320,000 and 350,000 Indians within the limits of the U. S. comprised in about seventy-five tribes and occupying about one hundred localities.

INDIAN WARS, U. S. In the war of the rebellion, the Choctaws, Chicasaws, and Cherokees, took sides with the Confederates. They furnished three regiments. The war upon the plains commenced in April, 1864, in Colorado. It was inaugurated by apparently too hasty action of the U. S troops towards the Cheyennes. An Indian village was soon destroyed and 40 warriors killed. Fearful massacre of Indians near Fort Lyon, Nov. 28, 1864, by forces under command of Col. Clivington. After this several Indian tribes formed an alliance and committed murders and depredations on the lines of travel. On Dec. 21, 1865, the Sioux massacred a company of soldiers at Fort Kearny. A general Indian War fairly begun in May, 1867. Gen. Sherman takes the management of it into his hands. Gen Meagher declares war against the Indians of Montana Territory, April 24, 1867.

INSOLVENCY IN THE U. S. In May, 1837, a commercial crisis' was at its height. The "heavy failures' in two months in New York alone amounted to 260, besides countless smaller ones. Failures in New Orleans to the amount of $27,000,000 in two days. In Boston 168 failures from Nov. 1, 1836, to May 12, 1837. New York city Banks all suspended specie payments May 10, 1837. The New England Banks generally, immediately after. See Bankruptcy.

INSURANCE. The marine risks assumed by Insurance Companies of New York alone, in 1860, amounted to $80,379,892; in 1866, they were $378,880,003. The fire risks in 1860, were $1,049,551,594; in 1866, $2,753,493,107. The losses paid in 1866 were $15,312,750.

INSURRECTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES. Shay's Insurrection in Massachusetts, (caused by the scarcity of money and heavy taxes), 1786. Insurrection in Pennsylvania, caused by duties on spirits, 1794. See the accounts of Conspiracies, Massacres, Rebellions, Riots, &c.

INTEREST OF MONEY IN THE UNITED STATES. The rates vary in different States, viz:In La. five per cent., in Maine, N. H., Vt., Mass., R. I., Conn., N. J., Pa., Del., Md., Va., N.

Ca., Tenn., Ky., Ohio, Ind., Ill., Mo., Ark., and the United States government claims, the rate is six per cent. In N. Y., S. Ca., Mich., and Wis., seven per cent. In Geo., Ala., Miss., and Flor., eight per cent. Laws against usury, with penalty of forfeiting the whole debt, in Maine, Conn., N. Y., N. J., Penn., Del. Forfeit of the usury and double, treble the usury in 14 other States. Usurious contracts void in Md., N. Ca., Geo., Tenn., Ohio, Ark.

INTERNAL REVENUE, U. S. See Revenue.

IOWA, now one of the United States, once formed part of the French possessions, and was included in the vast tract of country purchased in 1803 under the general name of Louisiana. First purchase of land from the Indians in Iowa was made in 1832. Iowa separated from Wisconsin as a territory, 1838. Admitted into the Union as a State, Dec. 28, 1846. Population in 1840, 42,924; in 1850, 191,881; in 1856, 519,148, and 271 colored; in 1860, 682,000. In 1863 she had 800 miles of railroad completed. Value of the exports from her river ports in 1862, $8,200,000. Population in 1865, 754,732, of whom 3,607 were black. The State furnished 72,300 men for the war. In 1865 the women of Iowa made 14,538,216 pounds of butter, and 1,000,738 of cheese. There are institutions for the insane and blind in the State.

IRON. The value of the annual product of the U. S. in 1860, was about $7,000,000, or about 1,200,000 tons. The quantity of pig iron produced in the U. S. in 1866, was 939.956 tons. 339,764 tons were manufactured into new and re-rolled rails; 129,858 in nails; 946,613 in castings over 10 pounds weight. The mountains of Missouri, it is computed, would yield 1,000,000 tons of wrought iron yearly for 400 years.

J

JAPAN. U. S. exped. under Com. Perry (7 ships of war), entered the Bay of Yeddo, Feb. 1854, to demand protection for American seamen and ships wrecked on the coast, and to effect a treaty of commerce, which was agreed upon, March 31. A British squadron for the same purpose reached Nagasaki, Sept. 1854, and effected a treaty. The Russians followed; and the Dutch made a new treaty, Nov. 9, 1855. Mr. Townsend Harris, consul-general for the U. S., made a new treaty, June 17, 1857, by which Nagasaki, Simoda, and Hakodadi were opened to American trade. Harris was received in Yeddo in 1858, and effected another treaty. Lord Elgin's treaty opening several ports to British trade, Aug. 26, 1858. Death of the Tycoon, August, 1858. Japanese embassy to the U. S. (with attendants, 70 persons), reaches San Francisco, March 28, 1860; Washington, May 14; Philadelphia, June 9; New York, where they were received with a great military display, June 16; embarked for home in U. S. frigate Niagara, July 1; reached Yeddo, Nov. 10, 1860. A troup of Japanese jugglers arrived in the U. S. in 1866. In the spring of 1867, their performances in N. Y. city excited much sensation. Their proprietor is under bonds to return them to Japan in two years. Commissioners from Japan again visited Washington in 1867, and made purchases of large quantities of school books for public schools in Yeddo, and also bought from the government the iron-clad frigate Stonewall, for the sum of $400,000. Ministers of the U. S., England, France, &c., notified May, 1867, that Yeddo and other ports would be opened to foreign nations in Jan., 1868.

JOCKEY CLUBS, U. S. One was organized in N. Y. city in the summer of 1866, by Messrs. Jerome, Belmont, and others. Its object is to improve the breed of horses, and establish a better system of races. A park and course have been laid out at Fordham, near the city, at the expense of Mr. Jerome. The races were inaugurated Sept. 25, 1866. The celebrated horse "Kentucky" won the 4 mile heat in 7.25.

JUDGES IN THE UNITED STATES. Those of the Supreme Court, eight in number, are appointed for life or during good conduct, by the President and Senate. The chief justices of the Supreme Court of the United States have been John Jay, appointed 1789; William Cushing of Mass., 1796; Oliver Ellsworth, 1796; John Marshall, 1801; Roger B. Taney, 1836; Salmon P. Chase, 1864. U. S. Circuit Judges were first appointed 1801. The judges of the several States are thus appointed:

By the Governor and Legislature, or Senate, or Council, in Maine, New Hampshire, Massachusetts, Louisiana, Missouri, Indiana, and Michigan. By the Legislature alone, in Vermont, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Jersey, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Arkansas, Tennessee, Ohio, and Illinois. By the Governor alone, in Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Kentucky. By popular vote, in Mississippi and in New York, and Maryland The TERM OF OFFICE of the superior judges is for life (or "during good behavior ") in Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, Kentucky, and Illinois. Until seventy years of age, in Maine, New Hampshire,