international regulation has been employed to a certain extent for the regulation of signals and routes. A signal code was first adopted by England and France in 1864. Other nations from time to time joined in accepting this code, which was given a thorough revision in 1899. At the present time forty states have adopted it. Through the use of flags of various sizes, forms, and colors, ships are enabled to communicate with each other and thus an international sign language has been created.

England and France also led the way in the adoption of conventional rules with respect to routes of navigation, as well as night and fog signals. These rules also have been remodeled from time to time, especially at the conference of Washington, in 1889. They are at present accepted by thirty states, and though their observance has not been made obligatory on ships, they are as a matter of fact generally observed by navigators.

The work of harmonizing and eventually of codifying international maritime law has been discussed at the annual conferences of the International Maritime Committee, which have taken place regularly since 1897. The committee is the central organ of national associations in twelve leading states; it has its seat in Antwerp, and publishes a bulletin. Another body dealing with maritime interests is the International Association of the Marine, which was founded by French initiative. At its meeting at Lisbon in 1904, on which occasion the delegates of several governments participated, the association voted for the establishment of an international maritime. bureau. These private and semi-public endeavors have been supplemented by the work of an international conference on maritime law, convened in Brussels in 1905 at the invitation of the Belgian government.5

Übereinkommen über den Eisenbahn-und Frachtverkehr. Berne, 1901. Zeitschrift für den Internationalen Eisenbahntransport. Berne, since 1893. Rosenthal, Ed., Internationales Eisenbahnfrachtrecht. Jena, 1894. Olivier, E., Des chemins de fer en droit internat. Paris, 1885. Eger, G., Das Internationale Übereinkommen, etc. Breslau, 1893. Meili, Das Recht der Verkehrs-und Trans

portanstalten. 1888.

B Protocol and Proceedings, International Marine Conference 1889. Washington, 1890. Bulletin du Comité maritime internat. Antwerp. Rev. internat. de droit marit. 19:800, 937. Ann. de droit commerc. 18:323. Govare, P., in Rev. de droit internat. privé, I, 593.

II. ECONOMIC INTERESTS

The Metric Union. One of the most serious inconveniences of international commerce arises from a difference in the standards of weights and measures. The adoption of a uniform standard was therefore urged at an early date by the representatives of international commerce and by scientific associations. In 1867 the international geodetic conference at Berlin pronounced in favor of the universal use of the metric system. It also suggested the creation of an international commission which should supervise the keeping and duplication of standard units of measure, in order to avoid a gradual divergence among the various national standards. In 1869 the French government created a metrical commission (Commission du mètre), composed of French and foreign members, for the purpose of advancing international unity of measurements. A conference called by this commission discussed the scientific methods required for assuring the stability of standards, and suggested the creation of an international bureau. For the purpose of carrying out these suggestions, a diplomatic conference was convoked in Paris in 1875, which adopted a treaty on the subject. Under this treaty there was created an international bureau of weights and measures installed at Sevres, near Paris. It is the function of this bureau to preserve the original standards of measurement, and, upon request, to furnish accurate copies to governments and scientific institutions. The bureau is under the supervision of an international committee representing the states who are members of the union. From time to time there is held a general international conference composed of delegates of the treaty states. The conference confines itself to the discussion of scientific methods for perfecting the accurate reproduction of standards of measurement. The international bureau has become an important scientific center for metrological investigations. It is supported by contributions from the treaty states, and by fees received for reproductions of the prototype measures.

Industrial, Literary, and Artistic Property. As a result of longcontinued discussion on the part of persons and associations interested in the development of industrial inventions, the French gov

'Bigourdan, G., Le système mètrique des poids and mesures. Paris, 1901. Moynier, op. cit. 57. Olivart, op. cit. II, 477.

ernment, in 1880, issued an invitation for an international conference on the protection of industrial property, to be held at Paris. At a second conference held at the same place in 1883, there was adopted and signed by the representatives of eleven states a convention for the protection of patent rights and trademarks. The purpose of the union thus formed was not the complete unification of the respective laws of the member states, but rather the creation of administrative rules by which the citizens of one state would be permitted without expensive formalities to come under the protection of the patent and trademark laws of the other states. Such an administrative arrangement might, of course, lead the way to a gradual assimilation of the national patent laws themselves, although this would not be its direct object. A central organ of the union, the International Bureau of Industrial Property, was established at Berne. The functions of this office were at first confined entirely to correspondence, investigation, and publication. It was charged to bring together statistics and other useful information, to issue a periodical (La Propriété industrielle), and to prepare preliminary studies for the conferences. The suggestion to make it an office for the registration of international patents did not at first find favor. At the second revisionary conference, held at Madrid in 1890, this suggestion was repeated. Though this arrangement was not acceptable to all the treaty states, it was adopted by ten of them, who thus formed a restricted union under the more general convention. Under this system the registration, at the international bureau, of a trademark already registered in one of the treaty states, has the effect of giving this trademark protection in all the other contracting states without any further special registration in any of them. This method of procedure is a great simplification, and it materially reduces the expenses of industrial companies on account of trademarks. The net income of this special service is distributed pro rata among the states of the restricted union. This arrangement, by which the international bureau becomes an administrative organ of the treaty states, is admirable for its simplicity. It does not involve any change in the national law, but simply entitles the person or firm registering a trademark to whatever protection is given in the respective treaty state to this form of commercial property. The international union

was strengthened in 1903 by the accession of the German Empire, which, up to that time, had held aloof.

The formation of the union for the protection of industrial property was an encouragement to those persons who desired a similar international protection to be extended to works of art and literature. An international literary and artistic society had been formed in Paris in 1878 for the advancement of the above purpose. At a conference held at Berne in 1883, the association worked out a general project of a convention for the protection of literary and artistic works. Thereupon the Swiss government was prevailed upon to call an official conference for the purpose of adopting a convention of this kind. Three diplomatic conferences were held in three successive years beginning in 1884, which resulted in the formation of an international union for the protection of literary and artistic property. The union also created a bureau (1888) which acts as a central organ of information and publishes a journal (Le Droit d'auteur). In 1892 this office was united with the industrial bureau. The associated bureaus are under the control of the Swiss department of foreign affairs. Their expenses are borne by the treaty states in proportion to population. The relations of these bureaus to the governments and national administrations are, of course, not nearly so direct as in the case of the telegraph, the postal, and the railway freight bureaus, nor do they possess any arbitral functions; but their work in bringing together authoritative information upon the patent and copyright laws of the various nations has been of great value to the public and to persons specially interested. Movements for the reform of national legislation have derived their information from these international organs. The bureaus have a very small personnel, and have always stayed well within their modest budget, notwithstanding the volume and real importance of their published work."

Union for the Publication of Customs Tariffs. In 1890 there was created by convention an international bureau for the purpose of the collection and publication of customs tariffs. The bureau is

'Recueil général de la législation et des traités concernant la propriété industrielle. Published by the International Bureau, Berne, 1896-7. Frey-Godet, La Protection internationale des marques industriels. In Zeitschrift für Völker

situated at Brussels. Its duty is to supply, with the least delay possible, copies of laws and administrative ordinances referring to cus toms tariffs, and to cause the same to be published in its own periodical (The International Customs Bulletin). Forty-one states are parties to this arrangement; they divide among themselves the expenses of the bureau. In 1894 it was attempted, upon the iniative of the Swiss government, to establish a similar office for the publication of international treaties. Sixteen governments were represented at a conference held at Berne, where the project of the Swiss government was discussed. On account of the lack of direct authorization on the part of several delegates, the conference did not take any action, but referred the project to the consideration of the various governments.8

International Protection of Labor. The efforts which have been made for the purpose of securing international agreements for the protection of labor are especially instructive. In a peculiar manner, private and state initiative have been combined and intermingled in the co-operation between public officials with private experts to bring about an international understanding. No field of action reveals so clearly the limitations of international arrangements and the difficulties in the way of their achievement, nor, on the other hand, shows so fully the possibilities inherent in them. The government of Switzerland deserves the credit of having made the first attempts to secure an international conference on labor legislation, after the matter had been repeatedly considered by a number of international labor congresses, composed of delegates of labor associations and of other organized bodies. In 1889 the Swiss federal council addressed an invitation to fourteen European powers, requesting them to send delegates to a conference for the purpose of discussing certain definite topics concerning labor legislation. The suggestion was favorably received by the majority of the coun

recht und Bundesstaatsrecht. I, 329. Soldan, L'Union intern. pour la protection des œuvres litteraires et artistiques. 1887. A. Darras. Du droit des auteurs et des artistes dans les rapports internationaux. 1887. Olivart, op. cit. II, 402. "Paris Copyrights Congress," in Nation, 71:226. Recueil des conventions et traites concernant la propriété litteraire et artistique. Published by the International Bureau, Berne, 1903.

8

Acts of the Conference of Brussels, 1888, and of Berne, 1894, in Arch. dipl.