these great families of nations, indeed, do not seem to have been recognised at so early a period; but the Phonicians, in their voyages along the Atlantic, had already come into contact with many tribes of the Celts, and certain sections of the Slavonians and Scythians were well known to the Oriental people.

309. This meagre survey of the various nations of Europe, contemporary with the era of Persian supremacy in the East, is all that is necessary in the present place; inasmuch as all the particulars that are known respecting the growth and career of these nations from first to last, belong properly either to Grecian, Roman, or general modern history. In Grecian history is involved the commencement of European civilisation, as illustrated in the progress of the Greek countries; Roman history continues the narrative of European advancement, and embraces the Italian nations, the Iberians of Spain, and the Celts; while the Germans and the Slavonians are not properly included in the stream of European progress till the era of general modern history.

AFRICAN NATIONS.

310. Egypt was always regarded by the ancients as constituting a part of Asia, rather than a part of that great continent to which in modern times the name Africa has been applied. Besides the Egyptians, however, there were several African nations enjoying considerable celebrity, and exercising a considerable influence on the affairs of the world, both prior to and during the existence of the Persian empire in the East. The most important of these were the Ethiopians, the Libyans, and the Carthaginians.

THE ETHIOPIANS.

311. The word Ethiopian, which literally signifies blackface, was often used by the ancients as a vague denomination for any dark-skinned native of the remote east or south. Thus the southern Hindoos were sometimes designated as Ethiopians by the Greeks; while, on the other hand, the inhabitants of southern and interior Africa were called Indians. More accurately, however, the name Ethiopia was used by the ancients to denote all that portion of the African continent which remained after deducting Egypt and the countries bordering on the Mediterranean.

312. Of the extent of the region thus named, the ancients entertained the most indistinct ideas. About the year 600 B. C., indeed, some enterprising Phoenician seamen actually circumnavigated Africa, by sailing down the Red Sea into the Indian Ocean, thence round the Cape of Good Hope, and finally back to Egypt through the Mediterranean

accomplishing the whole voyage in about two years. This voyage, however, did not dispel the erroneous notions respecting the form and relative position of Africa, and the possibility of sailing round its southern promontory was generally disbelieved. Upwards of a century later, in the

reign of Xerxes, king of Persia, a Persian nobleman, named Sataspes, who had been condemned to death for some offence, had his sentence commuted into a commission to repeat the Phoenician exploit of sailing round Africa. Setting out from Egypt with a crew collected at an Egyptian port, he made the attempt in a direction contrary to that which the Phoenicians had pursued-sailing through the Strait of Gibraltar, and along the western coast of Africa towards the Cape of Good Hope. For several months he persevered, landing occasionally, as he afterwards said, on coasts inhabited by little men clothed in red, who fled into the interior as the ships approached. At length, however, becoming afraid, or really finding it impossible to proceed farther, he returned, and declared the enterprise to be impracticable. Xerxes, however, would not accept his excuses, and ordered him to be put to death. This unsuccessful attempt confirmed the mysterious notions entertained as to the nature of the Ethiopian region south of the Great Desert- a vast and horrid space,' it was said, 'without wood or beast, and totally destitute of moisture; the ocean, on both sides, too, being so thick and muddy that no vessel could proceed through it. A subsequent navigation along the western side of the continent by the Carthaginians, under a leader named Hanno, enabled learned men to combat this notion; on the whole, however, it may be said that the ancients never acquired any knowledge of Africa farther than to about 10 degrees north latitude on the west coast, and to some distance south of Cape Guardafui on the east.

313. From such notices as remain in ancient writers relative to the Ethiopians of interior Africa, it may be inferred that their condition resembled that of their negro descendants at the present day. On the western coast, along the Atlantic Ocean, there were tribes with whom the Phoenicians and the Carthaginians traded for gold. As the merchants could not converse with the natives, their plan of trading was peculiar. Having arranged their wares on the beach, they retired to their ships and kindled fires so as to make a great smoke. Seeing this signal, the natives came and laid down beside the wares

as much gold as they considered equivalent. The traders, if they considered the quantity of gold enough, took it and departed; if not, they left it, and again retired till the natives had increased it. This account probably refers to the negro tribes living near the mouths of the Senegal and the Gambia: regarding the inland tribes little was known. One strange story, however, connected with them was related to Herodotus on what he considered trustworthy authority. Some young men, it was said, of one of the Libyan nations of the Mediterranean coast of Africa, had once set out, in a spirit of adventure, to explore the interior of Ethiopia. They reached the Great Desert, and after travelling through it for many days, came upon an oasis where fruit-trees were growing. While they were gathering some of the fruit, a number of black men of small stature came and seized them, and then carried them away over marshes till they arrived at a city, all the inhabitants of which were black, and spoke a language that could not be understood. A large river flowed past the city from west to east, full of crocodiles. After some time the young men were allowed to depart and return to Libya. There seems little doubt that the river they saw was the Niger, and that the city was a town on the banks of that river, near the site of the modern Timbuctoo.

314. Of the Ethiopians of Eastern Africa to the south and south-west of Egypt the ancients had more exact knowledge. To the south of Egypt lay the country of the Nubians, a strong and well-formed race of Ethiopians, with features different from those of the negroes properly so called, but bearing a closer resemblance to the negroes than the Egyptians. Considerably to the west of Nubia was a race of Ethiopians called Troglodytæ, or 'Dwellers in Caves,' who were said to live on serpents, lizards, and other reptiles, and to speak a language resembling the shrieking of bats. Recent travellers have identified this Ethiopian tribe with a people living to the south-east of Fezzán. Another tribe of Ethiopians, however, which also bore the name of Troglodyta, dwelt on the border of the Red Sea, to the south-east of Egypt. They were herdsmen by occupation, and their favourite

food was milk and clotted blood; they derived their name from their custom of living during a part of the year in caves adapted for the purpose by art. Other tribes of Ethiopians living between Egypt and the Red Sea were the Blemmyes, the Megabari, and the Ichthyophagi, or 'Fish-eaters;' so called because their principal food was fish caught in pools in the Red Sea, and afterwards dried and pounded into a kind of paste with seeds. Besides these, and not far distant from them, were various other tribes of Ethiopians, regarding whom marvellous tales were told.

315. Occupying a more distinguished position than these tribes were the Macrobians, or Macrobian Ethiopians, whom modern research has identified with the Somaulies, who inhabit that part of the African coast which lies between Babelmandeb and Cape Guardafui. It is supposed that it is to these Macrobians that reference is made, under the name of Sabeans, in Isaiah, xlv. 14: The labour of Egypt, and merchandise of Ethiopia and of the Sabeans, men of stature, shall come over unto thee.' This passage indicates that in very ancient times merchants carried on a traffic with Ethiopian countries situated far to the south of Egypt; and from other sources it is ascertained that the trade with the Macrobians consisted in an exchange of iron, oxen, and salt, for gold, frankincense, and other Ethiopian commodities. The traders who visited the country carried back exaggerated accounts of what they saw in it, and especially of a famous wonder called 'the table of the sun.' Hence when Cambyses had effected the conquest of Egypt, he was led to conceive the design of adding the Macrobian Ethiopians also to the Persian empire. To prepare the way for this design he sent (524 B. C.) a number of Ichthyophagi, who were accustomed to the route, and knew the Macrobian language, with presents to the Macrobian king, consisting of a purple vest, a gold chain for the neck, gold bracelets, an alabaster box of perfumes, and a cask of palm-wine. The Macrobians, as is mentioned in the foregoing passage from Isaiah, were celebrated for their stature; and it was their custom to maintain this celebrity by always choosing the