10. In order to accomplish, without confusion, the design of the present work, we shall divide it into three parts. In Part First is presented a compendious account, individually, of the various ancient nations which were ultimately included in the Persian Empire, commencing with the earliest times, and ending at the date of the formation of that empire. In Part Second is traced the history of the Persian Empire from its commencement to its close, and also continue the history of the various Oriental nations that had been included in it during the subsequent period of Greek and Roman rule-thus connecting the general history of the East in a more particular manner with Greek and Roman history. Lastly, in Part Third, a survey is given of those portions of the ancient world which were not included in the Persian Empire-ascertaining, as far as possible, their primeval condition; noting the nations of any eminence that had thus early appeared in them; and giving a summary of the known history of these nations, either to the time of their fusion with the Roman Empire, if that event befell them, or till recent times, if they escaped that fate.

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PART I.

HISTORY OF ANCIENT NATIONS ULTIMATELY INCLUDED IN THE PERSIAN EMPIRE.

THE EGYPTIANS.

11. Scripture, and the general testimony of both ancient and modern inquirers, assign a priority in civilisation to the Egyptians. The seat of this people was the long, narrow, winding valley through which the Nile flows on its way to the sea, leaving a rich strip of arable land on each side. The breadth of the valley is in some places ten miles, in others less than two. The limit of ancient Egypt towards the south was at the First Cataract—a distance of nearly six hundred miles from the Mediterranean Sea, into which the waters of the Nile are discharged. Ancient Egypt consisted of three parts: Upper Egypt, which included the course of the valley between the First Cataract and the site of the ancient Hermopolis; Middle Egypt, which extended from this point to the point where the Nile separates into branches; and the Delta or Lower Egypt. Following the rocky course of the Nile above the First Cataract, the traveller arrived, after a journey of 800 miles, at the famous Ethiopian state of Meröe. Between Meröe, therefore, and Upper Egypt, there intervened an extensive debatable land or valley of communication, through which the Egyptian kings had to pass ere they could invade Meröe, and the Ethiopian kings ere they could invade Egypt.

12. Egypt, in its middle part, is environed by hills, in

which are limestone, slate, and quartz; and in Upper Egypt there are extensive quarries of that peculiar species of granite called syenite. This granite is more abundant on the eastern side of the Nile; on the same side of the river are also found some kinds of precious stones, as well as mines of iron and copper. From the valley of the Nile as well as from the rich soil of the Delta, the inhabitants derived abundant supplies of grain. The fertility of the soil was caused by a remarkable circumstance. As rain seldom falls in Middle or Upper Egypt, the country would have been scorched and fruitless but for the periodical overflow of the Nile. This overflow takes place annually till the present day. Towards the end of June, the river rises above its ordinary level: swollen by the heavy rains which then begin to fall in the mountains of Abyssinia, the increase continues till October, when the whole valley is flooded. The inhabitants watch the rising waters with anxiety; for should they not attain their usual height, the irrigation would not be complete, and the consequence might be a famine. Should they, on the other hand, rise one or two feet above it, the higher spots would be covered, and flocks and habitations would be swept away. After October the waters begin to sink; and at length, towards the end of November, they regain their original channel, in which they remain throughout the winter, and till the next summer solstice. As the river subsides, it leaves on both banks a deposit of rich brown mud: in this the husbandmen sow the seed with scarcely any preparation; and in a few weeks, subjected to the strong sun of Egypt, it yields a luxuriant harvest. December, January, and February are the verdant months. As the heat continues, however, the soil becomes baked and cracked, except where watered by artificial means; clouds of light dust are blown about by the winds; and the whole country assumes a desolate and rusty appearance under a blue and cloudless sky.

13. Besides abundant crops of wheat, barley, beans, and other articles, Egypt yields many fruits and vegetables of use as food. The wheat of ancient Egypt was a heavy and nutritious grain, celebrated in the times of the Romans over the whole of the Mediterranean countries; and her flax

and linen were prized from the earliest periods. Peculiar to Egypt also was the papyrus, or paper-plant, which grew in the marshes of the Delta. The animals of Egypt likewise distinguished it from other countries. Besides the cow, the sheep, the goat, the camel, the dog, cat, and a few of the ordinary wild animals of Northern Africa, there were a variety of rare river animals; among these were the hippopotamus, the crocodiles and alligators of the Nile, and the famous ibises or serpent-eating birds.

14. Fertility of soil, with abundance of food, leads to density of population. In ancient times Egypt gave subsistence to a large number of inhabitants. The Egyptians, who called themselves Cham or Chemi (the name Egyptians being of Greek origin), and who were called Mizraim by their neighbours the Hebrews, were of a tawny or bronze complexion, sometimes approaching to black. They combined the characteristics both of the Semitic or SyroArabian, and the Japetic or Indo-European races, mixed also with an infusion of the negro or Ethiopian element. In shape they were tall and muscular, and their countenances were generally handsome. The beards of the men were shaved; and the custom of wearing wigs, or at least bushy hair on the head, seems to have been universal. Perhaps the wigs served the purpose of turbans, and were worn to shelter the head from the sun. The Egyptians employed a language of which the Coptic tongue, spoken in modern Egypt, is believed to be a relic, though modified by Arabic and other languages, and also long centuries of degradation. The modern Egyptian, personally, is by no means a pure descendant of the ancient race who dwelt in the country.

15. Although inhabiting a strip of country 600 miles long, and gathered chiefly into an immense number of distinct cities and villages, scattered at intervals along its narrow extent, the Egyptians, from the date of their first appearance in history, seem to have constituted a single united nation, living in strict subjection to a fixed system of rule, in which the ostensible governor was a king, designated Pharaoh; but the real governors were a caste of priests, diffused through the population, and possessing settlements and temples along the course of the Nile. As