PARTINGS OR FISSURES.

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formerly was in this country, women and children bearing forth the coals on their backs, or at least carrying them from the workings to the bottom of the shaft.

The working tools of the collier are few and simple, consisting chiefly of different forms of that very efficient implement the pick, being a sort of small mattock with both ends of the head pointed, and perhaps derived from a somewhat similar tool of great antiquity, figured among the Egyptian hieroglyphics. To the pick may be added small crowbars, iron hammers, mandrils, and wedges.

It is worthy of especial observation, in regard to the cubical structure of the coal seams in general, how beautiful a system of subordinate fractures conduce to facilitate the separation of the mineral masses by means of the implements of the miner. Parallel to the stratification of the seam, so as to divide it into thick lamina, run what are termed partings, or spaces commonly filled with a sooty matter; there are, in the next place, successions of vertical cracks cutting through the stratum in the direction of its bearing line or level, or, according to Mr. Mammet, generally observing a north and south polarity; these separations are called backs or slines, or by the Yorkshire colliers bright-heads, from the coals separating at these cleavages with clean and highly polished surfaces, except when, as often happens, the complanatory lustre is covered with a rusty-looking scale, or with the well-known white sparry concretion, consisting for the most part of carbonate of lime, derived from the infiltration of ferruginous or calcareous duced, we may hope, for the sake of humanity, they will by this time have, to a large extent, superseded so unbecoming a species of labour.

water; besides these fissures, there are others passing through them vertically at right angles, and appropriately denominated cutters; so that by means of this compound system of natural fractures, the coal, under favourable circumstances, easily breaks down in parallelopipedal masses. Of course, the

structure of the coal formation in different places exhibits many and important deviations from uniformity in this respect.

In proceeding to get the coal, the collier, whenever he can do so, works upon the face of the bed,— i. e. if the seam dips towards the east, he would, if in other respects convenient, work towards the west, or otherwise in the opposite direction, and not, unless under peculiar circumstances, in the direction of `north and south, or upon the end of the coal. The advantages of this mode will be obvious in connexion with the explanation given above: the opposite course would manifestly be little less absurd than that of a person who, having to demolish a mass of masonry, in which all the bricks were laid lengthwise upon and in courses parallel to one another, should pursue his operations in that direction which only presented the ends of the bricks.

In working upon such a face as that above described, the men in the boards or stalls first undermine the mass, by hewing out a portion next the thill or floor of the mine. This operation is called kerving, or holing under; and it is the object of the workmen to waste as little of the coal as possible, particularly where the seam is thin and of equal quality throughout; in some instances it has a sole or footing of inferior value, which is the more cheerfully sacrificed. In the next place, deep vertical

grooves are cut on each side of the mass intended to be brought away, so as to define its size: it is then broken down, either by means of wedges or by the force of gunpowder; the former is mostly the method adopted in Yorkshire and various other places; the latter generally prevails in the deep mines of the more northern counties. In blasting, a hole is made about a yard in depth, and the shot inserted near the roof or top of the working; and as the effect of the explosion is much more considerable when it can be made to act mainly in the line of one of the vertical back fissures above described, the collier, whose habit it is to set these shots, acquires such an exact perception of the nature of the substance which he penetrates, that he can generally pronounce when his chisel reaches one of these polished faces.

It is not uncommon in working fiery seams of coal, for a jet of gas to issue at the hole which is driven for setting the shot; this takes fire at the lamp or candle, and if suffered to extend, might lead to serious explosions: it is generally, however, unless a considerable reservoir has been tapped, readily doused or beaten out with a bag kept for that purpose. In some cases, when the gas is not easily extinguished, a small cannon is fired, and the concussion caused will sometimes produce the desired effect. Besides the danger always attendant upon the irregular ignition of the gunpowder and emissions of gas, there is another and sometimes fatal casualty to which the miner in this department of his labour is liable, owing to the sudden and unexpected separation at the slines of a deep facing or wall of coal from the mass, when the under portion has been removed, or during that operation.

The nature of these underground operations precludes, in general, the substitution of machinery for direct manual labour, though various experiments have at different times been made with reference to that object. One of the contrivances for this purpose best known in the north, was a machine called, from the inventor," Willy Brown's Iron Man," which was introduced into Willington Colliery about 60 years ago. This agent was to have done the work of a giant, but as he required a strong man to work him, and another to direct his blow, he was soon laid aside. In addition to the above, it may be mentioned that the late Mr. Wood, of Newcastle, invented a machine to drill, and drive the wedges into the coal, in order to bring the top down without the aid of gunpowder. This contrivance consisted of a sort of elevated railway, along which was pushed a large and heavy iron ram, managed by two men, which struck the drill or chisel so as first to open a space of a few inches, after which the wedge was introduced and driven up by means of the ram, until the mass was brought down. It was calculated that this method would spare that shaking, and consequent breakage of the coal, which take place when gunpowder is used. One cargo of coals was wrought by this means in the colliery of Messrs. Brandling at Gosforth, and sent to London; but the extra expense of working, and cost of machine, rendered it like Willy Brown's Iron Man-a thing of curiosity rather than of use, and it has long been laid aside. Some attempts have also been made to bring down the coal by means of forcing into the mass immense taper screws.

CHAPTER XIII.

UNDERGROUND ACCIDENTS.

Various dangers to which the Collier is exposed— Falling of matters from the roof of the MineCauldron bottoms, bell moulds, and bleas-Irruptions of Water-Instances of Flooding Flooding-Occurrence of Subterranean Fires from natural, accidental, and wilful causes-Explosions from inflammable Gas-Dreadful Accident at Felling Colliery -Details of the Catastrophe-Fire Damp and Choke Damp.

THE dangers with which the Collier has to contend, and the accidents to which he is liable while pursuing his gloomy avocations, may be comprised generally under three classes, namely-1. Matter falling from the roof, or some other part of the mine; 2. Irruptions of water; and 3. Fire damp. Instances of the former kind are comparatively rare, and always of local occurrence: so that although large quantities of shattery roof may sometimes fall down, and suddenly bury the miner, or masses of coal, inadvertently loosened, may occasionally descend and crush him to death, accidents from these causes are very infrequent, as they are generally to be avoided by the