CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.-INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.

Primeval state of Society-Improving the natural resources of a Country--

Ancient Canals, &c.-Count Platon's description of passing rapids

in Sweden-Policy of the Romans in establishing Roads--Roman

Roads, and system of making them-Wooden Railroads-British,

Scotch, and Irish canals-Facilities of Railroads-Resistance to the

motion of carriages on Railroads, and boats on canals-Advantages

and disadvantages of canals; Performance of horses on railways and

canals-Turnpike-roads-Interest for the capital invested in Rail-

ways-Railways improving the Land contiguous to them-Imposi-

tions practised upon railway companies, &c. &c.,

CHAPTER II.-PROGRESS OF RAILWAYS.

Page 1

Introduction of the principle of Railroads-"Way Leaves" introduced

-Primary Railroads; Origin of "single" and "double-way";

Wooden Railroads; Invention of cast and malleable iron Rails-Tram

Roads-Cast iron edge Rails-Stone Blocks introduced-Malleable iron

square bars; Malleable iron edge Rails-Railways, &c.,

CHAPTER III.-GRADIENTS.

Of expressing the rate of Inclinations-Rules for calculating the several

parts of Inclined Planes; Estimated by Geometry-Tables of Gra-

dients-Rule for ascertaining the proper Inclination, to Equalise the

Draught in each direction, for a Descending Trade; Examples show-

ing how to calculate by it-Ratio of Waggons of one-third, fourth,

and fifth parts of the weights of the gross downward Load, explanatory

of the Equalised Planes,

26

40

CHAPTER IV.-EXCAVATING.

Quantity of Land required for a Railroad-Formation and preservation of

Slopes-Methods of staking out Cuttings-Boring-System of Exca-

vating-Cubic yards excavated per day by each individual; Expense

of excavating per Cubic yard-Employing Trams; Corves; Barrow-

ing; "Horse-runs," or vertical roads-Gulleting; Its advantages and

disadvantages-Excavating in Layers-Modes of working Descending

Cuts-Excavating Rock-Great blast of rock, in Craigleith quarry-

American patent for boring in rock-Formation Level-Disruptions in

Slopes; Drainage-Cowran Hills cut, near Carlisle-Dwarf Walls-

System of measuring Work, with explanatory examples,

CHAPTER V. -HAULAGE.

Page 53

Resistance opposed to the Motion of Carriages upon level Railroads-

Power, Speed, and Distance of a Horse's day's work; Quantity of

Work performed each Day by a Horse-Weight of Earth-waggons;

Specific Gravity of earth-Expenses attending Horse power; Expense

of Conveyance per Cubic yard, per Mile-The tractive force neces-

sary to Ascend and Descend planes, elucidated-Tables exhibiting the

Useful effect per day of each Horse, in Tons and Cubic yards of

Earth, drawn one Mile; and also the Expense of haulage per Ton,

and per Cubic yard, upon various Inclinations of Ascending and

Descending planes; Examples showing how the tables are calculated

-Method of calculating the Gross load, and Useful effect, that can

be produced by any Motive power on a Level, and on Ascending

and Descending Planes,

CHAPTER VI.-HAULAGE, CONTINUED.

Advantages and disadvantages of employing Locomotive and Fixed ma-

chinery, for the Removal of Earth-works-Locomotive and Stationary

engine planes-Elucidation of that plane upon which the Maximum

Effect is produced by Animal power-Method of estimating the Ave-

rage Distance of Leading Earth-work-Tables exhibiting the Resist-

ance opposed to the Motion of Carriages upon various Inclinations

of ascending and descending Planes; also examples explanatory of

their use-Tables of the Resistance of various kinds of Roads, and

Granite Tramways; Tables showing the comparative Weights drawn,

and the corresponding Expense upon such Roads; Proper Inclination

for a Descending Trade for each kind of Road; Effect of the Inclina-

tions with their relative Expense-Patent axle grease, and lubricating

fluid, &c. &c.,

74

86

CHAPTER VII.-EMBANKING.

Of attaining Elevations by Embankments and Viaducts; Their advantages

and disadvantages-Victoria bridge, on the Durham Junction Railway;

Croft skew-bridge, on the Great North of England Railway; Ouse-

burn, and Willington Dene viaducts, on the Newcastle-upon-Tyne

and North Shields Railway-Quantity, nature of Material, and Angle

of Repose of embankments-Batters of slope explained-Foundations;

Drainage-Imperfect method of forming Embankments; Remedy

proposed-Embanking in Layers-Mode of Expediting the Unloading

of Excavated earth-Curvilinear form of embankments-Embanking

upon and adjoining Masonry-Mode of Counteracting the Pressure of

Embankments, when passing over tunnels or other masonry-Obstruc-

tions in crossing valleys; How avoided-Self-acting inclined Planes;

Stationary engine Planes-Endless Ropes-Inclinations for animal

power; Equalised Inclination-Expense of Unloading excavated earth;

Expansion and contraction of soils; Deterioration of Earth-works;

Preservatives for Earthen mounds-Slopes; Draining slopes of mounds

-Wolverton embankment, on the London and Birmingham Railway

in a state of Combustion; Cause of its becoming Ignited--Earth wag-

gons; Side, and Revolving waggons, &c. &c.,

Page 109

CHAPTER VIII.-BRIDGES AND TUNnels.

Of Foundations in general; Tunnel Foundations-How to assist Tunnels to

sustain Earthen mounds of great altitude; Securing Tunnels from the

action of Mounds while crossing over them-Of Stone; Its quality

-Decomposition and Disintegration of Stone-Lime; Sand; Mortar;

Preparing mortar-Grouting; Its efficacy-Ashlar work-Size of

Blocks; How proportioned; Disposition of Blocks in a Wall-Voissoirs,

or Arch-stones-Methods of Dressing stones-Rusticated Work-Block

and course walls-Bricklaying; Imperfections of Brick; Specifying

brickwork; Disposition of Bricks in a wall; Bond preserved; Arching

-Bond in arches; Arching with distinct rings-Pressure against

retaining Walls of Bridges in Excavations; How avoided-Symmetry

of bridges-Bridges and Tunnels underneath Embankments; Where

defective; How avoided,

CHAPTER IX.-FENCING.

Setting Fences-Proper Season for planting Quicks-Methods of planting

and cleansing-Proper age for planting-Expense of Quicks-Favour-

able soils-How prepared-Plants require attention and protection;"

Should be manured-Pruning hedges; Form; Cutting and warping

-Willow and other Hedges-Planting quicks-Evil effects of injudi-

cious Pruning-Fence railing; Impropriety of using too light Fence

railing; Expense-Stone fences; Dry-walls-Cause of failure-How

avoided-Coping of Fence walls, &c.,

CHAPTER X.-PERMANENT WAYLAYING.

Page 138

Utility of malleable and cast-iron Rails contrasted-Birkenshaw's patent

wrought-iron Rails-Comparative Weights required for each kind of

Rail-Malleable iron susceptible of great change of form without

diminishing its cohesive power-Property of being extensible or

malleable prevents exfoliation-Resists separation from its adjoining

particles with nearly equal forces-Cast-iron hardest and toughest at

the exterior-Cause-Oxydating effects of each kind of Rails considered

-Comparative wear of malleable and cast-iron, both Wheels and Rails,

from Actual Practice-Permanent Roads-Ballasting-Drainage-

Depth of Ballast-Materials for Ballasting-Consolidating Ballast-

Packing Blocks and Sleepers-Drainage of Ballast-Stone Blocks-

Quality of Stone-Chairing Blocks-Waste of stone by Percussion-

How avoided-Fixing Blocks at Right-angles-Obliquely-Advantages

and disadvantages of each method-System proposed, combining the

Advantages of each-Of roads laid upon Transverse wooden Sleepers

-Their utility-Laying curved roads-Grooved Rails for crossing

roads upon a Level-Description of the mode of fixing the chairs and

rails upon the Manchester and Liverpool Railway-Mr. Losh's-

Parallel malleable iron Rails, and mode of fixing-Improved chairs-

Dimensions and weight-How fixed to the Rails-Fastenings by Pins-

Keys-Clasps, &c.-Continuous timber bearings-Originally used in

America-Used upon the Great Western Railway-Newcastle-upon-

Tyne and North Shields Railway-Utility of Longitudinal Bearers

-Materials, &c-Method of Fixing-How connected and secured-

Patent felt introduced-Continuous Rails described; Their Weight,

&c.-Borrodail's "Patent Felt,"

145

CHAPTER XI.-EXCAVATION TABLES.

Table first, Batter of Slopes, 1 horizontal, to each perpendicular foot-..

Table second, Batter of Slopes, 14 to one-Table third, Batter of

Slopes, 1% to one-Table fourth, Batter of Slopes, 1 to one---And

Table fifth, Batter of Slopes, 2 feet to each perpendicular foot.

164

PRACTICAL TREATISE

ON

THE CONSTRUCTION AND FORMATION

OF

RAILWAYS, &c.

CHAPTER I.

INTERNAL COMMUNICATION.

Primeval state of Society-Improving the natural resources of a CountryAncient Canals, &c.-Count Platon's description of passing rapids in Sweden -Policy of the Romans in establishing roads-Roman roads, and system of making them-Wooden railroads-British, Scotch, and Irish Canals-Facilities of railroads-Resistance to the motion of carriages on railroads, and boats on canals- Advantages and disadvantages of canals-Performance of horses on railways and canals-Turnpike-roads-Interest for the capital invested in railways-Railways improving the land contiguous to themImpositions practised upon railway companies, &c. &c.

In a rude state of society, we may reasonably infer, that man would have little either to barter or to dispose of; consequently, at that period, any other mode of conveyance than that of his own animal power, was unregarded; and we have presumptive evidence, which will scarcely admit of a doubt, that the improving the natural resources of every country has been both the cause and effect of civilization: they have, therefore, invariably progressed simultaneously.

B