supreme control within it, over both civil and military affairs. A civil governor, assisted by a council, exists in each government. In local government alone is there any degree of autonomy, the administration of affairs within the city, parish, and commune being largely intrusted to the people, who elect, at public assemblies, elders, tax-collectors, and other officials. Local government in Finland (q.v.), Poland, and the Baltic provinces differs somewhat from that in the rest of the empire. The present emperor is Nicholas II., who succeeded his father, Alexander III., on October 20, 1894. His cabinet of ministers during most of the year 1901 was constituted as follows: Minister of the imperial household and imperial domains, Baron W. Fredericksz; foreign affairs, Count Lamsdorff; war, General Kuropatkin; navy, Vice-Admiral Tyrtoff; interior, M. Sipyaghin; public instruction, M. Peter Vannovsky; finance, M. de Witte; justice, M. N. V. Muravieff; agriculture, M. Yermoloff; public works and railways, Prince Khilkoff; general control, General Lobko; procurator-general of the Holy Synod, M. Pobiedonostzeff; state secretary for Finland, Count de Plehwe.

Religion and Education.-The established church of the empire is the GræcoRussian, officially known as the Orthodox-Catholic Faith. The emperor is the head of the church, which has no connection, except that of ritual and creed, with the other branches of the Greek Church. Estimates place the number of adherents at about 96,000,000, of whom 12,000,000, however, are "dissenters." Other religious beliefs are represented approximately as follows: Roman Catholics, 12,150,000, one-half of whom live in Poland; Mohammedans, 12,000,000; Protestants, 6,750,000, and Jews, 4,000,000. With the exception of restraints placed upon the Jews, all religions may be freely professed, and all, with the exception of the Jews, are supported by the state, through the Holy Synod, or imperial department of religious affairs, whose head, the procurator, has wide powers over all denominations.

The greater part of the educational system of the empire is under control of the minister of public instruction, but there are also numerous technical schools supported by other departments, agricultural schools under the department of agriculture, and theological schools in charge of the Holy Synod. There are universities at Moscow (4,407 students), St. Petersburg (3,788 students), Kiev (2,604 students), Kharkov (1,387 students), Yuryev, Warsaw, Kazan, Odessa, and Tomsk. The estimated enrollment of students in the universities is 16,500, in middle schools (including technical, agricultural, etc.), 260,000, and in primary schools upward of 4,000,000. Both the latter grades are supported partly by the state, partly by local authorities, and partly by private fees or donations.

Army and Navy.-The Russian military service is organized on a conscriptive basis, every male above 21 years of age being liable for duty, with a few exceptions in the case of clergymen, teachers, and some other professions. Actual service for recruits in European Russia is for a first term of 5 years and a term of 13 years in the reserves, with further enrollment in the local militia until the age of 43. In Asiatic Russia, active service is for 7 instead of 5 years. Estimates of the peace footing of the regular standing army give the numbers as follows (1901): Infantry, 710,000; cavalry, 130,000; artillery, 153,000; engineers, 42,000; administration, 39,000. Total, 1,074,000. The total war establishment, including reserves and militia, numbers 63,000 officers and 3,440,000 men.

Only in very recent years has Russia possessed a navy of the first class, and even now it is nowhere nearly commensurate with her position as a world power. The geographical situation of the empire makes it necessary to maintain at least three separate fleets, for the difficulties of reinforcing one by another in war-time would be well-nigh insuperable. One fleet is bottled up in the Black Sea, where, according to international agreement, it must stay. Another is maintained in the Baltic, and a third, by far the largest and most important, in the Pacific and the China Sea. There are also squadrons in the White and Caspian seas. The Russian fleet in commission and building in 1901, not including obsolete and old wooden vessels, consisted of 13 first-class battle-ships, II second-class battle-ships, I third-class battleship, 15 first-class cruisers, 7 second-class cruisers, 9 torpedo gunboats, 43 torpedoboat destroyers, and 85 first-class torpedo boats.

Finance. The budget for 1901 balanced at 1,788,482,006 rubles, and for 1902 at 1,946,571,976 rubles. In the budget for 1902 the sum of 170,658,495 rubles is assigned for expenditures upon the Siberian and other railways. The free balance at the disposal of the imperial treasury at the close of 1901 was, according to M. de_Witte, the minister of finance, 240,000,000 rubles. There was a total public debt on December 31, 1901, of 6,497,300,000 rubles. The principal sources of revenue are land taxes, trade licenses, capital taxes, excises, stamp duties, and state domain and railways. Industries and Commerce.-Although a great portion of its territory is unfit for rultivation, Russia is preeminently an agricultural country, and at least three-quarters of its inhabitants are engaged in agricultural pursuits. The crops for 1901 were disappointing, for although in many cases the acreage under cultivation was greater

than in 1900, the production in most staples was considerably less. According to figures furnished by the Russian Central Statistical Committee, the principal crops, in bushels, for 1901, with the decrease or increase as compared with 1900, were as follows: Rye 754,924,997, decrease 18 per cent.; wheat 427,780,266, increase 1.1 per cent.; oats 624,096,754, decrease 26.9 per cent.; barley 239,916,435, increase 1.2 per cent.; maize 68,400,394, increase 99.7 per cent.; buckwheat 36,040,495, decrease 12.6 per cent.; millet 65,553,744, decrease 10.4 per cent.; peas 17,911,488, decrease 31.3 per cent.; potatoes 879,710,734, decrease 8.6 per cent.

Hay is a product of growing importance and value. In the trans-Caucasian region tea, tobacco, and wine are produced, the latter product amounting in 1899 to over 17,000,000 gallons. Live-stock and forest products are of great value, but as industries have been but little developed. There are rich ore deposits in both European Russia and Siberia (q.v.), but on account of the difficulty of access to the mining country and the conservatism in introducing modern mining machinery, the development of the industry has been exceedingly backward. The government took steps in 1901 to modify the restrictions imposed on gold placer mining in the Ural Mountains, it having been found that the output from that source had been gradually diminishing during the past decade. The smelting of pig-iron in the Ural region, which began in 1891 with an output of 482,000 tons, had increased in 1900 to a total of 797,900 tons. The most successful mining in the Urals is that of platinum, about 96 per cent. of the entire world's product coming from this district, the production in 1900 amounting to 11,989 pounds. The coal output, although considerable in quantity, is of a very poor quality. In 1900 Russia supplied 35 per cent. of the petroleum on sale in the markets of the world; that is, 365,000,000 gallons out of a total of 1,035,000,000 gallons. The production of naphtha in that year amounted to 3,360,000 gallons, as against 2,105,000 gallons produced in the United States. The competition of Russian with American petroleum will doubtless grow keener with the completion of new railways and pipe lines from the oil fields to the coast. Hitherto the transportation of Russian petroleum has been effected chiefly by means of the railway from Baku to Batum, 558 miles in length, and capable of carrying 400,000,000 gallons a year. Between these two points an immense pipe line is in process of construction that will have, when completed, a carrying capacity of 625,000,000 gallons, 142.5 miles having already been completed.

In 1900 the imports were valued at 572,496,000 rubles, a slight falling off from 1899, when the value was 594,000,000 rubles. The exports, on the other hand, increased from 601,600,000 rubles in 1899 to 688,552,000 rubles in 1900. The imports and exports respectively (in rubles), with the principal commercial countries of the world, for 1900, were as follows: Germany, 215.416,000 and 187,515,000; Great Britain, 128,176,000 and 145,564,000; France, 31,228,000 and 57,444,000; Austria-Hungary, 27,290,000 and 26,436,000; Netherlands, 8,811,000 and 69,192,000; Denmark, 5.943,000 and 18,290,000. According to figures furnished by the United States Treasury Department, imports to the United States from Russia, European and Asiatic, amounted in the fiscal year 1900-01 to $7,263,874, and exports to Russia from this country, to $8,221,915 in the same period. The exports from Russia are largely food-stuffs, animal products and manufactured articles. During the last few years the Russian merchant marine has developed greatly. Not many years ago the merchant fleet comprised only a few steamships and about 200 Finnish sailing vessels. In 1901 the merchant steamships, including river steamers, numbered some 3,050. Communications.-The Trans-Siberian Railway.-On November 3, 1901, the section of the Trans-Siberian Railway built westward along the Amur from Khabarovsk, north of Vladivostok, was connected with the branch built eastward from Sryetensk, and complete rail connection between St. Petersburg and Vladivostok was thus established, except for the branch road around the end of Lake Baikal. A transfer ferry carries the express trains across the lake at present. The Trans-Siberian line was begun in the spring of 1891 and was completed as far east as Irkutsk in 1898. The eastern section, however, was much the most difficult part of the work, and construction has been slow. The completed line is 5.545 miles in length, over thirty miles of the distance consisting of bridges. The trip from London to Shanghai may be made over this overland route in 21 days at a cost of about $160. The present service provides two express trains a week from Moscow, a through ticket to Vladivostok costing about $50, first class. The road from Nikolsk to Port Arthur was likewise completed, giving the latter place rail connection with the rest of the Trans-Siberian system. There were apparently well-founded reports in the spring of 1901 that the condition of the Trans-Siberian Railway was disappointing to the Russians because of the poor quality of work done by dishonest contractors, in collusion with government supervisors.

The railway across Russian Turkistan from Orenburg to Tashkent was begun in the fall of 1901. It will traverse for a greater part of its length a barren and

sparsely populated country. It will have a total length of 1,150 miles and will cost, it is estimated, about 115,000,000 rubles.

Canals. Along with her plans for covering the empire with a network of railways, Russia has projected a canal system that is intended to make up to some extent for the lack of natural water connection between the various parts of the realm. In January, 1901, it was announced that the government would build a canal from the Gulf of Finland to the White Sea, and preliminary work was at once begun. The length of the waterway will be 598 miles, of which 304 miles will be formed by lakes. From the mouth of the Neva the canal will follow the bed of that river to St. Petersburg; Lake Ladoga will be utilized, whence the canal will follow the Svir to Lake Onega; thence various waterways will be used, the channels being widened and deepened, to the White Sea terminus, at Soratzkoi. The canal will have a depth of 31 feet and a surface breadth of 200 feet, thereby admitting the largest ocean steamship, and is looked upon as of great strategic as well as commercial importance. Plans were perfected during 1901 for the proposed ship canal from the Baltic to the Black Sea, a project which the Russian government has had in mind for a quarter of a century. There is already a small canal for grain barges and canal-boats. The proposed ship canal will follow this route, running from the Gulf of Riga, along the rivers Dvina, Beresina, and Dnieper to Kherson, on the Black Sea, the length being 994 miles. Early in 1901 there was a report of a project to connect the Black and Caspian seas by a canal from Astrakhan to Taganrog, on the Sea of Azof, at an estimated cost of 40,000,000 rubles. It is stated, however, that the plan has not received official sanction.

COW.

HISTORY.

Riots. In the early months of 1901 occurred a most serious succession of riots among the students of various Russian universities. The inciting cause, apparently, differed at different times and places, but the demands of the students were very similar. As the disturbances increased the unrest spread to workingmen and small shop-keepers, who, contrary to all precedent, allied themselves with the students. The movement gave rise to the greatest apprehension on the part of the imperial government, who thought they saw in the rioting the outbreaking of a spirit of revolution. Trouble first arose at the University of Kiev, as a result of a mass-meeting of students. The authorities, who objected to any student intermeddling, as they looked upon the mass-meeting, called the military to their aid; 500 students, whose names were taken, were afterward tried by special court, and 138 were condemned to one, two, or three years' service in the army. Soon after, what appeared to be sympathetic disturbances, took place among the students at the University of MosThe movement spread to the University of Kharkov, and thence throughout the country, bulletins and proclamations being issued and demands for reform presented to the authorities. On February 27 a student named Karpovich shot and fatally wounded M. Bogoliepoff, the minister of education. At St. Petersburg, on March 17, a riot occurred, the cause of which is obscure, but which has been stated to have had some connection with the excommunication of Count Tolstoy (q.v.). The rioters, 3,000 strong, met before the cathedral, and were dispersed by Cossacks only after bloodshed. On March 23 an attempt was made to assassinate M. Pobiedonostzeff (q.v.). The appointment of General Vannovsky to succeed M. Bogoliepoff as minister of education met with general approval, as it was recognized that he would be liberal in his treatment of the rebellious students, and at least give a hearing to their complaints. It was said that during the riots in March at least 2,000 of the 10,000 students at the universities at St. Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev, and Kharkov had been arrested, and most of them sentenced to military service. General Vannovsky, himself a soldier, was personally much opposed to this sort of punishment, and with the czar's approval their punishment was suspended and they were allowed to return to the universities for the fall term. A revision of the educational statutes was determined upon by the council of state, it being proposed to return to the liberal laws in effect prior to 1884.

Foreign Relations.-Russian diplomacy was chiefly occupied during the year with the Chinese settlement and the attempt to strengthen her position in Manchuria. (See CHINA, paragraph Manchurian Question.) With the United States the relations centred about the readjustment of tariff rates. (See UNITED STATES, Russian Tariff War.) For the czar's visit to France, see FRANCE. See also COREA; FINLAND; JAPAN; PERSIA; and TURKISTAN, RUSSIAN.

RUSSIAN LITERATURE. History and Biography.-Among the important historical publications of the year is a noteworthy Life of the Emperor Paul, by N. K. Shilder, already well known as author of an elaborate four-volume life of Alexander I. Shilder's work as a biographer is distinguished not only by an exhaustive industry in collecting facts, but by the special interest which he takes in the personality of his subjects, and which produces works more in the nature of psychological