would not refrain from protecting itself by establishing a tariff system against Austria. In the fall the Hungarians were somewhat irritated by a speech of Dr. von Koerber, the Austrian premier, in the Reichsrath, in which he stated that the renewal of the customs union between the two countries was advisable, but that thereafter "absolute honesty" must be observed in carrying out the compact.

In the spring of 1901 the government had under consideration a plan which, if carried out, will supplement the projected canals of Austria. It was proposed to connect by canals the waters leading to the Black and Adriatic seas with those leading to the Baltic, and to construct a waterway from the Danube to the port of Fiume. AUTOMOBILES. The year 1901 witnessed substantial progress in the improvement and use of the automobile both abroad and in the United States. Popular interest in the new vehicle was also quite as intense as in previous years, being kept up by long-distance races, speed trials, endurance trials, and exhibitions, and also by many serious accidents to careless drivers. In few cases, if any, have these accidents been the fault of the machine itself. On the whole it is safe to say that the automobile was a safer and more serviceable machine at the end of 1901 than it was twelve months previous. It is generally agreed also that, in America at least, the greatest improvement has been made in gasoline vehicles. Most of these improvements have been the adoption of European ideas and their adaptation to American practice and tastes. For example, the work of the year showed an increasing tendency to place the motor in front of the dash, to suppress the reach and stereotyped wagon running gear, to adopt forced circulation to motor cooling, and to increase the refinement of motor design and construction. For heavy vehicles side chain drive, and for light vehicles bevel-gear drive are becoming the accepted models. Wire wheels have almost entirely disappeared from heavy vehicles, and wooden wheels are taking their place; the wheel base is being made longer. In respect to steering gear it is to be noted that wheel gear has supplanted the lever and tiller on nearly all heavy vehicles. In steam automobiles, if we except heavy steam wagons and trucks, very few, if any, radical changes are recorded by the year's progress, and the advance among electric vehicles is even less marked.

In France and in Europe generally the status of the three types of automobile motor power, namely, steam, gasoline, and electricity, is about as follows: About the only form of light steam carriage in use is the Serpollet, and this is not much employed. Among the various types of electric vehicles used in France the Krieger, the Jenatzy, the Jeantaud, and the Mildè are the most notable. The Krieger has the steering and motor wheels in front; there are two motors, compound wound; the batteries are divided, part being in front and part in the rear; the controller is vertical, having seven positions, four ahead, one braking, and two backward; the tires on the front wheels are pneumatic and are solid on the rear wheels; and the motors are hung on springs. The Jenatzy is chain-driven, and, besides the usual hand control, is provided with a foot lever, which throws in more or less resistance and consequently regulates the speed. In the Jeantaud carriage the motor is hung on the frame and a chain drive to the rear axle is used. The Mildè vehicle resembles closely the Columbia electric carriage used in America. French gasoline automobiles are of two types, the heavy carriage and the so-called voiturette. As many recent American vehicles have been confessedly modeled on French precedents, some of the characteristic features of the latest French gasoline automobile may well be described. The motors now used in the heavier carriages are slow-running, the number of turns a minute, without acceleration, being limited to about 800; in motors where the stroke is short the number of turns can be accelerated up to 1,100 and 1,200 a minute. There has been recently a gradual cutting down of stroke, the diameter of the cylinder and the length of stroke being in many instances almost the same. Almost all the successful motors are of the vertical type and are placed in front of the dash. Two cylinder motors are used almost universally in carriages developing up to 8 horse-power, and four cylinder motors for powers above this. The inlet valves are so arranged as to be easily removed and examined; the extremest valves, made of special steel, are so arranged as to be readily taken out; the pistons are all fitted with oil grooves; the bearings of the crank-shaft and motor are made very large. With few rare exceptions two cylinder motors are governed, the grooves being usually of the ball type. The change gear most used is the sliding train. The carburetter is of the float-type. Recently tube ignition is being given up, and electricspark ignition in one form or another adopted. These igniting devices are usually hand regulated. Pedal control is almost universally adopted, two pedals being used, one releasing the clutch and the other releasing the clutch and braking. Wheelsteering gear is used with a lever control of the change gear. The muffler is little used in France, no objection being raised to the noise of the exhaust. Automatic oiling devices are used. Flanged radiators are used and the cooling water is usually pumped by a high-speed centrifugal pump run by friction from the flywheel. The French voiturette distinguished from the heavier carriage by its use of a high

speed motor and bevel gear drive instead of chain drive. It has not attained so high a degree of perfection as the carriage.

The preceding statements relate almost solely to light vehicles; for heavy vehicles for freighting purposes, steam motive power is far in the lead of either gasoline or electricity. England, which has taken a position in the rear of most other countries in developing light motor vehicles, is far in advance of all other countries in the development of the heavy steam wagon and truck. As has been its practice for several seasons, the Liverpool Self-Propelled Traffic Association held, in the summer of 1901, a formal trial of motor vehicles for heavy traffic. Eleven vehicles were submitted for this trial, two of which were propelled by gasoline engines and nine of which were steam wagons. Three of the steam vehicles were for different reasons unable to complete the full trial. The results of the trials may be briefly summarized from the report of the judges, as follows: A gradual and marked improvement in the construction and behavior of heavy motor vehicles had taken place since the first trials made three years before, and reliance may now be placed upon the better makes for regular employment in general haulage operations where due care and supervision are exercised. At the end of 1901 there were in operation in England a considerable number of steam trucks of four and five tons carrying capacity. In France very few heavy motor trucks have been built. In Germany one firm has built a number of gasoline trucks which have operated with great success. The building of heavy motor wagons for freighting purposes seemed in 1900 to be destined to receive considerable attention in the United States, but the records of construction in 1901 have not fulfilled this promise. Indeed, these records have been distinctly disappointing in many respects.

Racing. In the way of races, the long-distance Paris-Berlin race in June, won by M. Fournier, undoubtedly takes rank as the leading event, with the Paris-Bordeaux race as a close rival. The following figures give the essential details of these two races as compared with other long-distance contests. In a manner these figures tell the story of the automobile, because high speed means good construction. Such figures are, however, recorded only by racing machines; the tendency during 1901 was more pronounced than ever before to differentiate such vehicles from those used for pleasure and business.

Perhaps the most notable short-distance races of 1901 were those over a straightaway mile course on the Coney Island Boulevard, New York City, on November 16. The results were tabulated by the Automobile, as follows:

In October, 1901, on the Empire one-mile oval trotting track at Yonkers, N. Y., Mr. Bostwick drove his machine 25 miles in 32 minutes 20 4-5 seconds, and subsequently covered one mile in 1 minute 13 2-5 seconds. M. Fournier on the same track drove his machine 6 miles at the average speed of a mile in 1 minute 7 5-6 seconds. But it may be seen from the foregoing table that these figures were excelled in November. It should be pointed out that the fast time of M. Fournier, Mr. Keene, and Mr. Bostwick was made with a flying start.

AZORES, a group of islands in the north Atlantic, about 1,000 miles directly west of Portugal, of which kingdom they form administratively an integral part. Their area is 1,005 square miles, and their population, which remains practically stationary, was 255,594 in 1890. Ponta Delgada, the chief town, had a population of 16,767 in 1890, and Angra, the capital, 11,067. The imports (with Madeira) amounted in 1897 to £239,531, and the exports to £272,222. The chief product of the islands is fruit, 32,000 boxes of oranges being exported in 1898. An exhibition and fair was opened at St. Michael's on July 1, 1901, in honor of the first visit of the king and queen of Portugal to the islands. During 1901 a new cable was laid between Horta, on the island of Fayal, and Waterville, Ireland.

BABCOCK, MALTBIE DAVENPORT, American clergyman, died at Naples, Italy, May 18, 1901. He was born at Syracuse, N. Y., in 1858, graduated from Syracuse University in 1879, and from the Auburn (N. Y.) Theological Seminary in 1882. Dr. Babcock went from his first pastoral charge at Lockport, N. Y., in 1887 to the Brown Memorial Church of Baltimore, Md., remaining there until he was called to the Brick Presbyterian Church in Ne.. York City in 1900, to succeed the Rev. Dr. Henry Van Dyke. As a magnetic pulpit orator and an energetic director of his church's affairs, he became widely and favorably known. He was also the author of a number of religious poems and hymns. While on a journey to the Holy Land in company with other American clergymen he fell ill, and during the delirium of fever took his own life in a Naples hospital.

BABYLONIA. See ARCHEOLOGY.

BACTERIA. See ANTHRAX, ANTITOXIN, DYSENTERY, VITAL STATISTICS.
BAGDAD RAILWAY. See TURKEY (paragraphs on History).

BAHAMAS, a British colony comprising 20 inhabited and many uninhabited islands off the southeastern coast of Florida. The area is about 5,450 square miles and the estimated population in 1901 about 55,500, of whom four-fifths are negroes. The seat of government is Nassau, on New Providence, the most important island. The colony is administered by a governor, Sir Gilbert Thomas Carter since 1897, who is assisted by an executive council, a legislative council, and a representative assembly.

In 1900 the revenue, which is derived mainly from the customs, amounted to £78,661, against £76,697 in 1899; and the expenditure was £82,837, against £68,749 in the preceding year. The increased expenditure was due to the establishment of a sinking fund for reducing the public debt; this debt at the end of 1900 amounted to £112,226.

Imports and exports in 1899 amounted to £329,196 and £169,148, respectively; in 1900, imports, £325,269, and exports, £172,317. The imports consist largely of British cotton goods and American food stuffs; and the leading exports are sponges, fruit, and sisal fibre. Practically all of the fruit is shipped to Baltimore, and the sponge and fibre to Great Britain. During the last five years trade has greatly increased, the imports in 1896 having amounted to only £194,474, and the exports to £138,972. In his annual report the colonial secretary said that the social condition of the people was improving, and that although they had little accumulated savings and no capital for investment but their labor, they were far removed from the desperate poverty of many of the Caribbee Islands.

BALDWIN, EVELYN BRIGGS, American Arctic explorer, member of the Peary North Greenland expedition of 1893-94 and of the Wellman expedition to Franz Josef Land of 1898-99, headed a separate expedition to the North Pole, leaving New York City early in 1901. Upon the return of the Frithjof, one of his ships, to Hammerfest, Norway, in August, Mr. Baldwin was reported to have been left at Cape Ziegler (80° 24′ N.), preparing to advance immediately. He was born at Springfield, Mo., July 22, 1862, and was educated in Illinois. After several years of experience as a farmer, teacher, and school superintendent, he became an observer in the United States Weather Bureau in 1892. As inspector-at-large in the United States Signal Service, he secured the cooperation of Mr. William Ziegler, of New York City, who fitted out the present expedition.

BALDWIN, JAMES MARK, the American psychologist, whose Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology was issued in 1901, was born at Columbia, S. C., January 12, 1861, and graduated at Princeton University in 1884. Oxford University con