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anguages: Ger. dass, Fr. que, Lat. quod (for the relatives were originally demonstrative pronouns). All the rest might be called adverbial C. or conjunctive adverbs. Ex., He is industrious; therefore he is happy"—that is, "he is happy for that." This adverb, or adverbial phrase, expressive of the cause of the happiness, by referring us back for its meaning to the former assertion, has the effect of connecting the two assertions in the mind. Again, "The messenger arrived while he was speaking." Here while is equivalent to at the time at which (he was speaking). As an adverbial phrase, this simply indicates the time of the act of "arriving;" but as it also expresses that the speak ing was going on at the same time, it thus conjoins the two assertions.

The most important distinction among C. will be seen in the following pair of sentences:

The sun went down, and the moon rose.

The moon rose, as the sun went down.

The first (compound) sentence contains two simple sentences or assertions, linked together, yet each standing on an independent footing; the two are joined on terms of equality, and are therefore said to be co-ordinate, and the conjunction is called a co-ordinating conjunction. In the second sentence, the last clause, though a grammatical sentence, contains no logical proposition, no assertion made for its own sake, but merely states a fact as a modifying circumstance with regard to the assertion contained in the first clause. The sentence of the second clause is therefore subordinate to that of the first, and the conjunction that marks the relation, a subordinating conjunction. The chief co-ordinating C. are:

1. And, also, likewise, not only-but, partly-partly, first-then, further. All these are used to tack on sentences whose sense accords with, or adds to, the effect of what goes before. Hence they might be called cumulative conjunctions. The following (2) mark various degrees of opposition in the sense or effect of the sentences, and might be called adversative conjunctions. These terms seem preferable to conjunctive and disjunctive, generally used.

(a.) Not-but, else, otherwise (exclusive).

2. (b.) Either-or, neither-nor (alternative).

((c.) But, only, yet, still, at the same time, nevertheless.

3. Therefore, wherefore, for, thus, consequently, hence, accordingly, so, so that. (Cause and effect.)

All other C. may be classed as subordinating, such being their usual function. Those in most common use are: Although, as, as well as, so-as, as-as, because, if, lest, since, than, that, in order that, though, unless, whether, when, before, after, while.

CONJUNCTLY AND SEVERALLY, in the law of Scotland, corresponds to jointly and severally in England, and denotes a form of obligation by which each of several obligants becomes bound for the whole. The creditor in such circumstances has his option either to exact the obligation proportionately from each of the co-obligants, or to select one, and exact the whole from him, leaving him to seek his relief against the others. CONJURING. See MAGIC, INCANTATION.

*CONKLING, Roscoe, b. in Albany, N. Y., Oct. 30, 1829. He was bred to the law, and settled in Utica in 1846. Twelve years afterwards he was chosen mayor of the city. In the same year he was elected a member of congress, and was returned three times afterwards, serving in the house from 1861 to 1867. In 1867 he was elected U. S. senator, and re-elected in 1879. See Supp., page 889. CONNARA CEE, a natural order of dicotyledonous or exogenous plants, consisting of trees and shrubs, sometimes climbing, with compound alternate leaves, destitute of stipules; the flowers in racemes or panicles. Resinous juices do not occur in this order. Forty or fifty species are known, all tropical. The best-known product of this order is the beautiful wood called ZEBRA WOOD, the wood of a large tree which grows in Guiana, omphalobium lamberti. The fruit of some species of omphalobium is eaten.

CON NAUGHT, the westmost and smallest of the four provinces of Ireland. It is bounded n. and w. by the Atlantic; e. by Ulster and Leinster, from the latter of which it is separated by the Shannon; and s. by Munster. It contains the counties of Galway, Leitrim, Mayo, Roscommon, and Sligo. Greatest length from n. to s., 105 m.; greatest breadth, not including Achil island, 92 miles. Area, 6863 sq. miles. Along the w. coast are many fine bays and harbors. The country, especially in the w., is mountainous and rugged, remarkably grand and picturesque. (For detailed information, see the respective counties.) The people are still almost purely Celtic. In the times of the Irish pentarchy, the O'Connors were kings of Connaught. In 1590 the province was divided into six counties, the five above mentioned, with Clare (which was afterwards joined to Munster). It then came under English administration. From famine and emigration the population decreased from 1,420,705 in 1841 to 817,197 in 1881.

889.

CONNAUGHT, ARTHUR WILLIAM PATRICK ALBERT, Duke of, Prince. See page

CONNEAUT, a township and village on Conneaut creek, Ashtabula co., O., 2 m. s. of lake Erie, near the Pennsylvania line, and noted as the landing place of the first white settlers of northern Ohio, in 1796. There is a good harbor, at the mouth of the

creek, with a lighthouse. The Lake Shore r. r. passes through the place. There are manufactures of flour, leather, paper, etc., and 2 banks. Pop. of township and village, 1880, 3010.

CONNECTICUT, a New England state, and one of the original 13; between lat. 41° and 42° 3′ n.; long. 71° 55′ and 73° 50′ w.; bounded on the n. by Massachusetts; on the e. by Rhode Island; on the s. by Long Island sound; on the w. by New York; average length, 86 m.; av. breadth, 55 m.; extreme southern length, 100 m.; area, 4990 sq.m., of which 145 are water, or 3,193,600 acres.

History.-C. was granted to the Plymouth company in 1606. In 1614 Adrian Block, a Hollander, discovered and explored the C. river, and in 1623 the Dutch of New Amsterdam began a trading post at Suckiaug (Hartford). In 1631 the soil from Narragansett bay to the Pacific ocean was granted by the earl of Warwick to lord Say and Sele and others, but the transfer apparently had no legal basis. In 1633, in response to invitations by the Indians, Plymouth, Mass., traders built a house at Matianuck (Windsor). In 1634 Pyquag (Wethersfield) and in 1635 Dorchester (Windsor) and Hartford were settled by emigrants from Massachusetts bay. The Plymouth (English) company disbanded in 1635, and in that year the Say and Sele patentees, considering themselves the owners of C., sent over John Winthrop, Jr., to act as governor for one year. He built a fort at Saybrook, preventing the Dutch from getting control of the C., and gave the settlers in the upper valley a conditional permission to remain. Desire for a more democratic government caused a new exodus from Massachusetts, and in 1636 Hartford, Windsor, and Wethersfield received their chief bodies of emigrants. The first general court met at Hartford, May 1, 1637. In 1638-39 the three towns united in an independent commonwealth, adopting the first written constitution known to history, and "the first in America to embody the democratic idea' Agawam (Springfield) remained nominally associated till 1641. In May, 1637, a force under capt. John Mason, in retaliation for murders committed by the Pequots, the leading Indian tribe, invaded their country and nearly exterminated them. In 1638 Quinnipiack (New Haven) was settled by a Puritan colony, as were, 1638-40, Milford, Guilford, Stamford, and Southold, L. I. These towns, together with Branford, united, 1643–51, with New Haven, and Theophilus Eaton was made governor of the confederacy. "The judicial laws of God as delivered by Moses" were the rule for all courts, and the somewhat similar code of C. gave rise in after years to the nickname "blue laws" (q.v.). The C. code of laws, drawn up in 1650, reduced capital offenses from 160 (in England) to 15; Quakers were not severely dealt with, and few executions for "witchcraft" are recorded. Unlike New Haven, Hartford did not limit the elective franchise and officeholding to churchmembers, and the system of town government developed fully on her soil. In 1644 Hartford bought from George Fenwick, agent at Saybrook for Say and Sele, that isolated colony (settled 1639), and gradually (1644–62) by purchase, colonization, etc., acquired the greater part of the present state, and much of Long Island. In 1657 John Winthrop, Jr., was chosen governor of C., and by his diplomacy, April, 1662, procured a charter from Charles II. giving absolutely free government to that colony and defining its bounds in the terms of the Warwick patent, thus including New Haven. The latter, impoverished by unsuccessful business ventures, weakened by internal troubles, and dreading the duke of York, to whom her territory had been granted, also, reluctantly united with C. In October, 1687, sir Edmund Andros came to Hartford and demanded the charter from the general assembly, but it was carried away and secreted till 1693. See CHARTER OAK. In 1701 it was decreed that the May session of the assembly should thereafter be held in Hartford and the October session in New Haven. In 1708 the Saybrook platform (q.v.) was adopted, and in 1742 Congregationalism was made the established form of religious government, though other denominations were allowed to establish churches. The colony was very active in the French and Indian In 1754 C. bought from the Indians a large tract of land in Pennsylvania and proceeded to settle it, but was compelled in 1782 to give it up to Pennsylvania. In 1786 C. relinquished her charter rights to the territory w. of her present limits, receiving in return the western reserve (q.v.). Emigration thither was large, as was that to Vermont soon after, and to western New York, this emigration lasting about 40 years. The passage of the stamp act was vigorously denounced by the general assembly; in May, 1776, the colony was declared released from its allegiance, and in October C. was declared an independent state. She sent 31,939 men into the continental army, and her governor, Jonathan Trumbull ("brother Jonathan'), was Washington's most valued counsellor. In 1777 the British burned Danbury, and in 1779 pillaged New Haven and burned Fairfield, Green's Farms, and Norwalk. In 1781, Sept. 6, forts Griswold and Trumbull at New London were taken by Benedict Arnold, and the town was destroyed. C. ratified the federal constitution, Jan. 9, 1788, by a vote of 128 to 40. Her share in framing it was important, and to her was due the adoption of state equality in the upper house of congress, and of proportionate representation in the lower. C. was the stronghold of feder alism, and opposed the war of 1812; nevertheless, 2600 men were raised for home defense. The blockade of New London and the Hartford convention (q. v.) belong to this period. In 1818 a new constitution was framed; church and state were separated, and the general assembly was divided into a senate and house of representatives. The state furnished in the civil war 57,379 troops, 1764 of whom were colored. In 1873 Hartford became the sole capital.

wars.

Topography.-The state lies on the s. slope of the New England hill region, and is made up of river valleys enclosed by ranges of hills which stretch n. and s. and increase in height and ruggedness toward the w. The Holyoke range, known at Hartford as Talcott mountain, ends at Southington in the Hanging Hills, the highest of which is 995 ft. above sea-level. Bluffs and abrupt eminences of trap, such as East and West rocks at New Haven, are numerous. The highest elevation (in Litchfield co.) is Bear mt., Salisbury, 2354 ft. The C. river (q.v.) has as its chief tributary the Tunxis or Farmington, which enters it at Windsor. The Thames, formed by the Shetucket, Yantic, and Quinnebaug, and flowing through a narrow valley, with the Willimantic, its chief tributary, are the principal rivers in the e.; in the w. they are the Housatonic, which rises in Massachusetts, and the Naugatuck, which joins the former at Derby. The Thames is navigable to Norwich; the Housatonic to Derby. The coast line, 100 m. in length, is broken by many harbors, of which New Haven is the largest and New London the deepest and most sheltered. There are no lakes of large size.

Geology. The greater part of the state is occupied by primary rocks, which are separated into so-called eastern and western sections by secondary rocks: formations or basins of red sandstone and shale traversed by dikes and ridges of trap. The primary rocks are of original materials entirely, and include gneiss, mica slate, sienite, granite, argillite, and chlorite slate. The trap rocks, all of intrusive or igneous origin, are connected with both primary and secondary formations. The eastern and western sections are each traversed by extensive trap dikes, to which belong East and West rocks at New Haven. Boulders of great size are common, and the tops of many hills are composed of drift materials. The diluvial current passed from n.n.e. to s.s.e. The mountain sides in the C. valley exhibit glacial scratches. The bituminous shales contain fossil fishes and plants, and the sandstones footprints. Remains of the mastodon and of the reindeer have been found in the state.

Mineralogy.-Copper and lead exist, but have never been mined with profit. Silver occurs in minute quantities in other ores. Hematite iron ore of the best quality abounds, and that of Salisbury is highly valued. The largest amount of feldspar (orthoclase) quarried in the U. S. comes from Glastonbury and Middletown. Portland, on the C. river, is noted for its brown stone (old red sandstone) used for building purposes. Marble, limestone, flagging stone, tiling slate, fire-clay, granite, gneiss, sulphate of barytes, and trap-rock are unlimited in amount. Alum, plumbago, asphaltum, and bituminous coal are more sparingly distributed. Among precious stones are the agate, garnet, and golden beryl."

Zoology. The animals and birds include the wildcat, red fox, opossum, raccoon, rabbit, woodchuck, muskrat, otter, etc.; the Canada goose, Wilson's thrush, gull, winter wren, cedar bird, purple grosbeak, indigo bird, cardinal and rose-breasted grosbeak, oven bird, whippoorwill, yellow-billed cuckoo, great horned owl, marsh-hawk, golden eagle, mourning dove, ruffed grouse, quail, turnstone, great blue heron, and piping plover. The fish include the sturgeon, shad, pickerel, perch, trout, striped, rock, and black bass, alewife, sheepshead, weakfish, salmon and catfish. Mollusks and shell-fish are abundant, and the oyster beds of the coast are very valuable.

Botany. The trees include the pitch and white pine, red cedar, tamarack, aspen, basswood, beech, chestnut, wild cherry, 7 species of oak, among them the white, yellow, and red, 2 species of ash, 4 of maple, 4 of birch, 3 of elm, hickory, pignut, black-walnut, butternut, hop-hornbeam, holly, hackberry, pepperidge, wild plum, sassafras, sycamore, tulip tree, wild poplar, dogwood, and many species of willow. Among flowering plants are the purple clematis, mandrake, trailing arbutus, fringed gentian, prickly pear, painted cup, arethusa, and Canada lily; among ferns, the lygodium palmatum.

Soil and Climate.-The_C. valley as far as Middletown has a rich, deep, loamy soil, often with a clay subsoil. Below that point and generally along the coast it is sandy. The hills, as a rule, are better adapted to orchards and grazing than to cereals. The s.w. cos. have a dark, argillaceous soil, and in the n.e. a light gray loam occurs over a wide area. Spring opens rapidly in April; cold weather comes about mid-November, and the winters are usually severe, with deep snows in the mountains. The summers are correspondingly warm: the brief autumns very pleasant, though often foggy. The yearly mean temperature at Hartford is 49.81; at New Haven, 49°; av. rainfall for the state 11.77 in. Swamps and marshes do not abound, and miasmatic diseases are not

severe.

Agriculture. The leading crops are tobacco, corn, oats, rye, buckwheat, potatoes, and hay. The tobacco, which is of superior quality, is used for wrappers for cigars. The cultivation of this plant dates back to 1640, if not earlier, and the state now stands sixth in the value of the product. The average yield per acre is 1621 lbs. Hartford co. produces 65 per cent. of the whole amount. Apples, pears, cherries, and the small fruits common to the northern states are raised everywhere. The valleys are peculiarly adapted to the grape. Vegetables, small fruits, butter, cheese, and milk are shipped to New York in large quantities. The raising of sheep and cattle is an important industry. The number of farms, census of 1880, was 30,598; acres in farms, 2,453,541-1,642,188 improved; av. size farms, 80 acres; value farms, $121,063,910; est. value all products, $18,010,075. Products, 1886 rye, 390,000 bush.; barley, 14,000; buckwheat, 147,000; potatoes, 2,208,000; hay, 540,402 tons; tobacco, 11,667,000 lbs.; corn produced, 1887,