III. SOCIAL AND POLITICAL

CONDITIONS

(1) RELIGIOUS

The last available statistics are those of 1891, when the number of Anglicans and Protestants was 27,900; that of Jews, 13,200. By the Constitution there is absolute freedom of worship. The State treats all religious bodies on the same footing, and does not interfere with them in any way. Subsidies are, however, given to the ministers of all denominations; and the amount of these grants, in 1913, gives a sure index to their relative importance. The figures are: Roman Catholics, 7,318,000 francs; Protestants, 117,000; Jews, 32,000.

Religious houses are numerous. In 1900 (the latest statistics published) there were 2,474 separate houses (291 for men, 2,183 for women). Of these, 389 are devoted to the cure of the sick, 1,248 to education, only 178 to religious seclusion. Thus their main objects are practical and charitable, i. e. teaching and nursing.

(2) POLITICAL

The Belgian Constitution was originally framed by the National Congress elected for the purpose, and was adopted on February 7, 1831. It comprises 139 articles. The Belgian Government is an hereditary constitutional monarchy, the executive and legislative powers being vested in the King and two Chambers, the Senate and the Chamber of Representatives. The King must be a Catholic, and the crown passes in the male line by primogeniture. In case of the failure of heirs male,

the King with the consent of the Chambers has the right of nominating his successor. In default of such nomination, the throne, on the sovereign's death, would be declared vacant, and the Chambers, specially elected in double numbers, would proceed to the election of a successor. All the Acts of the King must be countersigned by a minister, who is thus made responsible. The King is commander-in-chief of the army, and has two special prerogatives. He can summon, prorogue, and dissolve the Chambers, and can initiate legislation by presenting to the Chambers a draft of a Bill (projet de loi) dealing with an urgent matter.

The number of members of the Representative Chamber was originally 102, that of the Senate 51. The franchise was at first very restricted, and continued so until the Constitution was revised in 1893-4. The members of the Representative Chamber, who had to be at least 25 years of age, were elected for four years, but one half retired every two years. Senators were elected for eight years, half of them retiring every four years. Every senator had to be at least 40 years of age and to possess certain property qualifications. The electorate for both Chambers was the same, except that for the Senate the age was raised from 25 to 30 years. The revision of 1893-4 added 27 members to the Senate. These supplementary senators are nominated by the Provincial Councils and sit for life.

By the Reform Act of 1894 every citizen of 25 years of age, who had resided for a year in a commune, and was not legally disqualified, became entitled to a vote. This democratic suffrage was modified by the creation of the plural vote. Every father of a family over 35 years of age paying 5 francs house tax, and every citizen over 25 owning a certain amount of property and in possession of a certain income, had an extra

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vote. Two extra votes were also given to persons who had gained diplomas of higher education 1 or who had filled public offices implying the possession of higher education, the limitation being that no elector should have more than three votes. In 1899 a system of proportional representation' was introduced. Thus the electoral system of Belgium is one of the most complicated in existence, but it has worked smoothly and on the whole satisfactorily.

The number of deputies is regularly increased with the growth of the population. In 1912 there were 186 members of the Chamber of Representatives; the number of the senators is 93+27=120. Each deputy receives a payment of 4,000 francs for regular attendance and a free railway pass. No payment is made to senators. Money bills and bills relating to the organization of the army must originate in the Chamber of Representatives.

(3) PUBLIC EDUCATION

Primary education, as has been shown in Sec. II. 9, has been the subject of much political controversy in Belgium, where, in general, it is far below the European average. The law of 1842 enforced the teaching of religion in all schools and placed it in the sole charge of the clergy, who were also allowed to control moral teaching and to veto the use of particular books. In 1879 the Liberal ministry of Frère-Orban passed an Act by which the schools passed entirely under secular control; grants were only given to schools which conformed to certain conditions; and religious education in school hours was abolished altogether, though ministers of religion were permitted to give it in the school buildings, to scholars of their own communion, 1 Enumerated in Art. 17 of the Act. 2 Enumerated in Art. 19 of the Act.

at other times. This Act aroused unanimous and organized opposition on the part of the Catholic population led by the Episcopate, with the result that in 1884 the Liberal ministry was overthrown and a Catholic majority returned, which has never since been shaken. The Catholics immediately reversed the policy of 1879, and the Schools Law passed by them in 1884, with modifications introduced in 1895 and 1910, now regulates the primary education of the country. The communes are responsible for the schools, and every commune is bound to provide a Catholic or a ‘neutral school at the request of twenty-five heads of families. The teaching of religion, though not compulsory, is everywhere permitted in school hours, with the proviso that children may be exempted from attending these classes on the written application of their parents. Grants are made to Catholic schools which submit to Government inspection; and most of the State training colleges were superseded by others controlled by the Church.

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Elementary education is free, and not compulsory. Belgium is the only European country, except Russia, which has no compulsory system of education; such a system is advocated by the Liberals, but opposed by the Catholics as hostile to the Belgian spirit of liberty and likely to lead to Government control in the schools. The proportion of children who never go to school is officially estimated at 10 per cent.; the Liberals estimate it at 16 per cent. It is certainly highest in the Flemish provinces, lower in the Walloon, and lowest of all in Luxemburg. In large towns attendance is almost universal; in the country districts, especially in Flanders, it is alleged that about half the children hardly attend at all; and it is certain that those who do attend do so with long intervals for helping at home and in the fields, and that the average

number of days' attendance in the year is well below 200. Education in the country also suffers because, whereas labour in factories is forbidden in the case of children under twelve years old, there is no such restriction for agricultural labour. Consequently the average town child stays at school till he is eleven or twelve, while the country child leaves as a rule earlier than this. Only 10 per cent. of the total scholars are over ten years old, as opposed to 16 per cent. in England.

There are three main types of school. Each commune must have at least one school (with certain exceptions); the number of teachers, the methods, hours, holidays, appointments and dismissals, &c., are controlled entirely by the commune. All teachers must be certificated and paid a minimum salary, and the Government issues a list of subjects which must be taught, but this list may be added to. The result is that the 'communal' schools vary greatly in number and efficiency. Where. the communal authorities are interested, as in Antwerp, Ghent, and Brussels, the standard is high; in many places it is very low.

The second type is the adopted school', which is a school officially authorized by the commune to supplement the work of the communal school. It undertakes to provide free education, the commune being responsible for the salaries of the teachers. Government inspection excepted, the adopted school is an autonomous institution, and exists as such in virtue of a contract, the contract of adoption', made between it and the commune. These schools are Catholic institutions.

The third type is the adoptable' school, i. e. a Catholic school identical with the adopted' except that it has no contract with the commune, and in consequence receives no payment from it; but all three

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