FIELD-MARSHAL. FIELD OF THE CLOTH OF GOLD, a plain near Ardres, near Calais, in France, on which Henry VIII. met Francis I. of France, 7-25 June, 1520. The nobility of both kingdoms displayed their magnificence, and many involved themselves in debt. Paintings of the embarcation and interview are at Windsor castle. FIELD-MARSHAL, see Marshal. FIERY-CHAMBER, see Chambre Ardente. FIESCHI'S ATTEMPT ON LOUIS-PHILIPPE, see France, 1835. Conference at Bonn, Aug. 1875. See Athanasian Creed and Nice. FILTERERS. A plan for purifying corrupted water was patented by Wm. Woolcott in 1675. Other modes followed. James Peacock's method of filtration was patented in 1791; and many others since: Ransome's, 1856. Apparatus for freshening salt water, brought forward by Grant, 1849; by Macbride, 1849; Gravely, 1858. Dr. Normandy's greatly improved apparatus, 1859, much used in the royal navy. FINE ARTS, see Arts, Paintings, Sculpture, Engraving, &c. FIFTH-MONARCHY MEN, about 1645, supposed the period of the Millennium to be just FINES AND RECOVERIES, conferring the at hand, when Jesus Christ should descend from power of breaking ancient entails and alienating heaven, and erect the fifth universal monarchy.estates, began in the reign of Edward IV., but was They proceeded so far as to elect him king at not, properly speaking, law, till Henry VII., by London. Cromwell dispersed them, 1653. Kearsley. correcting some abuses that attended the practice, Another rising with loss of life was suppressed, gave indirectly a sanction to it, 1487. Fines and 6 Jan. 1661. Thos. Venner, a cooper, their leader, recoveries were abolished in 1833. and 16 others, were executed soon after. FIFTH PARTY, a term applied to the advocates of temperance in the House of Commons (about 60), Feb. 1884. FIG-TREE (Ficus carica) brought from the south of Europe, before 1548. The Botany-Bay fig, Ficus australis, brought from N. S. Wales in 1789. FIGURES, see Arithmetic. FIJI or VITI ISLES, in the Pacific Ocean, about 1500 miles from Sydney. Discovered by Tasman, Dutch navigator, in 1643. There are above 200 isles; 80 inhabited; the largest about 360 miles in circumference. FILES are mentioned (1 Sam. xiii. 21) 1093 B.C. The manufacture of them has attained to great perfection, by means of file-cutting machinery. That set up by Mr. T. Greenwood of Leeds, in 1859, was invented by M. Bernot of Paris. It is said that the price of files made by it is reduced from 32d. to 4d. per dozen. FILIBUSTERS (properly Flibustiers), a name given to the freebooters who plundered the coasts of America in the 16th and 17th centuries; see Buccaneers and Nicaragua. FILIOQUE, (" and from the Son"), inserted in the Nicene creed, in respect to the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and the Son, by the second council at Constantinople, 381; was rejected, by the Greek church, 431; accepted by the Spanish, 447, and by the Roman, 883. The omission of the phrase was considered at the Old Cutholic FINISTERRE, see Cape Finisterre. FINLAND, a Russian grand duchy, in the middle of the 12th century was conquered by Eric IX. of Sweden, who introduced Christianity. It was several times taken by the Russians (1714, 742, and 1808), and restored (1721 and 1743); but in 1809 they retained it by treaty; see Abo. Its political constitution was confirmed by the Czar in 1800, 1825, and 1855. It was made nearly autonomous in 1883. Population in 1862, 1,746,229; dreadful famine, wholelvillages were starved. Elias in 1867, 1,830,853; 1875, 1,912,647. During a Lönnten, editor of the ancient national epic, opened with constitutional speech sent by the Czar, "Kalevala" (1834-49), died 1884. Triennial Diet 19 Jan. 1885. FINNIAN, see Fenians. FINSBURY PARK, London, N. In 1866, land was purchased, and preparations for the park began; and it was opened 7 Aug. 1869. FIRE. The poets supposed that fire was stolen from heaven by Prometheus. Heraclitus about 596 B.C. maintained that the world was created from fire, and deemed to be a god omnipotent. See Parsees. FIRE-ANNIHILATOR, an apparatus invented by Mr. T. Phillips, and made known by him in 1849. When put in action, steam and carbonic acid are formed, which extinguish flame. It was not successful commercially. L'Extincteur was invented by Dr. F. Carlier, and patented by filled with water and carbonic acid gas, generated A. Vignon in July, 1862. It is an iron cylinder by bicarbonate of soda and tartaric acid. apparatus was developed and improved by Mr. W. B. Dick, in his Manual and Chemical FireEngines, which give a continuous flow of water and gas, patented April, 1869. The The "Mata Fuego," or "Fire-killer," of M. Banolas of Paris, was successfully exhibited at the Alexandra Palace, 16 Oct., 1880. Great bodies of flame were almost instantaneously extinguished. The Harden Grenade Fire Extinguisher tried successfully near Farringdon-road, London, 24 July, 1884 See Antipyrogene and Asbestos. FIRE-ARMS, see Artillery, Cannon, Needlegun, Chassepot, and Pistols. The first small firearms were a species of cannon, borne by two men. Fire-arms made at Perugia, in Italy Employed by the Burgundians at Arras Edward IV., when he landed at Ravenspur, is said 1364 1414 FIRE-BRIGADE. to have been accompanied by 300 Flemings, armed with hand-guns . At Morat, the Swiss are said to have had 10,000 The petronel (from poitrine, the chest) or arquebus The rev. Mr. Forsythe patented the percussion principle of igniting gunpowder in muskets, by means of detonating powder Percussion caps came into use between 1820 & 1830 Percussion musket; pattern April, 1807 Application of machinery in small arms factory established at Enfield (the old musket Brown Bess superseded) 1842 Jan. 1857 Mr. Jacob Snider's system of breech-loading invented in 1859; presented to the British government: finally adopted, 1866. He received 1000l. for expenses in June; died 25 Oct.. 100,000 breech-loaders said to have been ordered by the British government July, New government advertises for propositions for conversion of Enfield rifles into breech-loaders, Aug. 1 Oct. 22 Oct. "Chassepot" guns in use in France June, 1867 61,582 new arms had been made at Enfield; 175,550 converted to Sniders, up to Dec. The "Money-Walker" rifle (patented by Mr. Mowbray-Money and lieut.-col. Walker), tried and approved 18 June, 1868 March, 1869 A report in favour of the Martini and Henry rifle issued [adopted] An act to grant a duty of excise on licences to use guns, passed 9 Aug. 1870 Complaints respecting the Martini-Henry rifle (for weight and recoil) Aug. 1874 See Mitrailleuse and Getting. FIRE-BRIGADE. The London Fire-engine Establishment," an amalgamation of the engines of the different companies, was established in London in 1832 by Mr. Charles Bell Ford, di rector of the Sun Fire-office. It then had 80 men and 19 stations. In 1863 it had 130 men and 20 stations. In May, 1862, a commission recommended the establishment of a fire-brigade, which was effected by the Metropolitan Fire-brigade Act, in 1865. The establishment then gave up its plant to the Metropolitan Board of Works. The fire-brigade is supported by a d. rate, and by contributions from government and from the insurance offices. It came into action, and its energies were successfully tested at the great fire at St. Katharine's docks, 1 Jan. 1866. FIRE-DAMP INDICATOR, a small apparatus, about the size of a chronometer, invented by Mr. G. F. Ansell, and patented by him in 1865, by which the presence of very small quantities of firedamp or light carburetted hydrogen gas may be detected in mines. It is an application of the law of the diffusion of gases. FIRE-DETECTOR and ALARUM, a mechanical and chemical apparatus invented by prof. Grechi, which causes a bell to be rung and exhibits coloured light, when the temperature of a room is greatly increased. It was tried at the International exhibition, London, 4 June, 1873. FIRE-ENGINES are said to have been invented by Ctesibius, 250 B.C. They are mentioned by Pliny, A.D. 70. A "water-bow" was patented by Thos. Grent in 1632, one was constructed by John Van der Heyden, about 1663. Bramah's engine was patented in 1793. Mr. John Braithwaite constructed a steam fire-engine in 1830. A trial of steam fire-engines took place at the Crystal Palace, Sydenham, on 1, 2, 3 July, 1863, when prizes were awarded to a large one by Merryweather and a small one by Shand and Mason. See Fire Annihilator. W. Dennis's portable self-acting pneumatic fireengine was tried successfully at gas-works near the Thames 30 Nov. 1876 FIRE-ESCAPES were patented by David Marie (1766), and Joachim Smith (1773). The Royal Society for the Protection of Life from Fire was first established in 1836; its object was not fully attained till 1843, when it was re-organised, beginning with six escape stations in London; in March, 1859, it possessed 67; in 1866, 85. In 1858, 504 fires had been attended, and 57 persons rescued. In 1861 it was stated that 84 lives had been saved by the society's officers. In 1866, 695 fires had been attended, and 78 lives saved. In Aug. 1867, the plant of the society was virtually presented to the Board of Works, in consequence of the passing of the Metropolitan Fire Brigade Act, 1865. Versmann's composition for rendering washing dresses fire-proof was published about 1800. FIRE INSURANCE, see Insurance. FIREMAN'S RESPIRATOR, the invention of Dr. Tyndall (1870-71), is a combination of his respirator of cotton-wool moistened with glycerine, and Dr. Stenhouse's charcoal respirator. Armed with this apparatus a man may remain a long time in the densest smoke. FIRE, ROYAL SOCIETY FOR PROTECTION FROM. See Fire-Escapes. FIRE-SALVAGE CORPS formed, in 1865, by the London Fire Insurance Offices. FIRE-SHIPS. Among the most formidable contrivances of this kind ever used, was an explosion vessel to destroy a bridge of boats at the siege of Antwerp, in 1585. The first use of them in the British navy was by Charles lord Howard of Effingham, in the engagement with the Spanish Armada, July, 1588. Rapin. FIRE-WATCH or FIRE-GUARD, of London, was instituted Nov. 1791. FIRE-WORKS are said to have been made by the Chinese in remote ages. They were invented in Europe at Florence about 1360; and were exhibited as a spectacle in 1588. Macaulay states that the fire-works let off in England at the peace of Ryswick, in 1697, cost 12,000l. Very grand fire-works were let off from a magnificent building erected in the Green-park, London, at the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, Nov. 1748. Exhibition of fire-works in Paris, 31 May, 1770, in honour of the marriage of the dauphin, afterwards Louis XVI; nearly 1000 persons perished by pressure and drowning, through a panic. The display of fire-works, under sir Wm. Congreve, at the general peace, and the centenary of the accession of the Brunswick family to the throne, 1 Aug. r814. Another at the coronation of William IV., 8 Sept. 1831. A grand display of this kind (at a cost of 10,000l.) to celebrate the peace with Russia, 29 May, 1856. In consequence of explosions frequently occurring at fire-work makers (particularly one on 12 July, 1858, at Mr. Bennett's in the Westminster-road, Lambeth, when five lives were lost, and about 300 persons seriously injured, and much property destroyed), it was determined to enforce 9 & 10 Will. III. c. 7 (1697), an act to prevent the throwing and forming of squibs, serpents, and other fire-works. An act regulating the making of fire-works was passed in 1860. Ralph Fenwick, a maker, his wife, and six others, Broad-street, Lambeth, killed by explosion 4 Nov. 1873. Mr. C. T. Brock, the greatest pyrotechnist of the time, has a manufactory at Nunhead; exhibits at the Crystal Palace, &c., and abroad, 1871, et seq. FIRES IN LONDON. The conflagration of a city, with all its tumult of concomitant distress, is one of the most dreadful spectacles which this world can offer to human eyes. Dr. Johnson. See Chicago, Santiago, Liverpool, 1862, &c. 962 & 1087 . A great part of the city destroyed, including St. In Southwark, 60 houses burnt At Shadwell, 50 houses burnt In Cornhill ward, 200 houses burnt; this fire began 1212 FIRES. 2-6 Sept. 1666 The warehouses of Messrs. Pawson, St. Paul's churchyard, burnt 1676 1715 Works of Gutta Percha Company, near City-road; loss 100,000l. 24 Feb. 1853 5 June, 1718 10 Sept. 1736 Kirkman's pianoforte manufactory Messrs. Scott Russell and Co.'s works, Millwall; loss 100,000l. 10 Aug. in Change-alley, and was the most the great fire of 1666 terrible since 25 March, 1748 Premises of Messrs. Savill and Edwards, printers, Chandos-street, destroyed 10 Sept. .30 Sept. At Covent Garden, 50 houses burnt Bread-street, de 31 Dec. 17 Aug. 1854 3 Dec. At Wapping, 20 houses 1775 At Hermitage-stairs, 31 houses 1779 At Horselydown, 30 houses, besides many ware Newgate, &c., by the Gordon mob In the Strand, 40 houses burnt In Aldersgate-street, 40 houses; the loss exceeding 100,000l. At Rotherhithe, 20 houses Again, when many ships and 60 houses were consumed Pantheon, Oxford-street At Wapping, 630 houses, and an East India warehouse, in which 35,000 bags of saltpetre were stored the loss 1,000,00ol. (tents for the sufferers were lent by the government) Astley's amphitheatre St. Paul's church, Covent-garden At Shadwell, 20 houses burnt In the Minories, 30 houses In the King's Bench, 50 residences loss 300,000l. At Wapping, 30 houses . 1759 21 July, 1794 17 Sept. 11 Sept. 1795 1 Nov. 1796 23 March, 1797 14 July, 1799 warehouses; 11 Feb. 1800 6 Oct. In Store-street, Tottenham-court-road, immense The great tower over the choir of Westminster property destroyed abbey burnt Premises of Townend and Co., stroyed; loss about 100,000l. Messrs. Cubitt's premises, Pimlico Whittington club-house Premises of Messrs. Routledge, Messrs. Rennie, &c., Blackfriars-road; loss, one life and 150,000l., Of Etna steam battery at Messrs. Scott works; loss about 120,000l. Pavilion theatre Covent-garden theatre Messrs. Scott Russell's (third fire), much machinery destroyed . 16 Feb. 1855 Russell's 3 May, 13 Feb 1856 5 March, valuable 12 March, Messrs. Dobbs' preinises, Fleet-street 1 April, Shad Thames flour-mill; loss about 100,000!, 17 July, Messrs. Broadwood's, pianoforte makers, Westminster 12 Aug. Premises of Messrs. Almond, army accoutrement makers, and others, in St. Martin's-lane; estimated loss 20,000l. 9 Nov. Messrs. Pickford's premises, at Chalk Farm station, 9 June, 187 Gilbert-street, Bloomsbury; 15 lives lost, 28 March, 1858 Fresh-wharf; 25,000l. of silk 21 June, Near the Customs, three West India 27 Sept. 1802 9 July, 1803 1 Sept. 2 Dec. 12 Aug. 1805 20 Sept. 1808 . 24 Feb. 1809 Thames iron-works, Blackwall . Astley's again, and houses 40 Frith-street, Soho, lasted several days, many houses In Conduit-street; Mr. Windham, in aiding to save Mr. North's library, received an injury which caused his death 9 July, In Bury-street, St. Mary-axe, half the street made ruins 12 June, 1811 Gt. James-st., Marylebone; six lives lost, 26 Feb. 1859 Messrs. Hubbuck and Co., Lime-street; one life and a large amount of property - 20 May, West Kent wharf and New Hibernia wharf: destroyed property valued at 200,000l.; fire lasted nearly a month; commenced 17 Aug. 1860 St. Martin's-hall, built for Mr. Hullah, and other Kilburn church, Maida-hill, destroyed 26 Aug. 31 Ang 29 Nov. 11 June, 1861 Cotton's wharf and depôt and other wharves near Tooley-street, containing oil and other combustible substances, took fire about half-past 4 P.M., FIRES. 22 June, and continued burning for a month. (Several persons were killed, including James Braidwood, the able superintendent of the London fire-brigade; the loss of property was estimated at 2,000,000l.). Davis's wharf, Horselydown, burnt; loss about 15,000!. 1861 1 Aug. Near Paternoster-row; Messrs. Longman's, booksellers, Messrs. Knight's, tallow-melters, and others; loss above 50,000l.. 4 Sept. Mr. Price's, Fountain-court, Strand, three lives lost, 3 Jan. 1862 At Campden-house, Kensington, pictures and other valuable property of Mr. Woolley destroyed (see Trials, 1863) 23 March, Mr. Dean's, Berkeley-street, Clerkenwell, three lives lost 5 May, Mr. Joel's, Fore-street, City, four lives lost, 21 May, Mr. Boor's, druggist, Bishopsgate-street; explosion; two lives lost Great Cumberland-street, Hyde-park; Mr. S. Barrett and two daughters burnt 15 Aug. Messrs. Price's oil-mills, Blackfriars, burnt; great loss of property. 20 Nov. Ancient Austin-friars church, City, partially destroyed 7 June, 22 Nov. Mr. Chard's, Portland-street, Soho; six lives lost, Chapel-street, Edgware-road, 4 lives lost; Crouchend, Hornsey, 3 lives lost Pavilion-road, Chelsea; 5 deaths 5 March, 1871 26 March, lost Silver-street, Stepncy; 2 killed Royal Savoy chapel, Strand, destroyed 7 July, Haberdashers-hall and Messrs. Tapling and others' warehouses 19 Sept. Messrs. Barry, Sufferance wharves, Dockhead; great loss 25, 26 Nov. Surrey theatre destroyed 30, 31 Jan. 1865 Saville-house (where George III. was born), Leicester-square 28 Feb. Poulterers' arms, Leadenhall market; two lives lost 13 June, Messrs. Meeking and Co., Holborn; damage 30,000l. 24 June, Messrs. Sotheby and Co., auctioneers; valuable library destroyed 29 June, Great fire at Beale's wharf; about 18,000l. damage, 30 Oct. 9 June, 10 Sept. Lloyd's newspaper printing-office, Whitefriars, destroyed 4 p.m. 29 Dec. Pantechnicon (which see), Knightsbridge; much valuable property destroyed Carnaby-street, W.; 2 lives lost 13, 14 Feb. 1874 15 Feb. Latta's great hop warehouse, Bermondsey, destroyed 28 Dec. Rimmel's perfumery manufactory, Beaufort-house, Strand, destroyed 19 March, 1875 W. Walker's cabinet manufactory, Bunhill-row, E.C., destroyed; estimated loss 30,000l. 14 Sept. Mr. H. A. Hankey's new mansion, near St. Anne's gate, St. James's park, destroyed; about 60,000l. damage. 7, 8 Oct. East London Rice and Flour Mills, Devonshirestreet and 18 other buildings 3 Jan. 1876 Chick's Great Western Pantechnicon 2 June, Messrs. Warner's and other premises, Brook'swharf, Upper Thames-street 15-18 June, Little Windmill-street, Haymarket; about 80,000l. damage; many poor sufferers Bridgman's saw-mills, St. Luke's, destroyed 15 July, 24-25 July, Grant & Co.'s printing-office, &c., Turninill-street, Clerkenwell; about 100,000l. loss 10, 11 Aug. Mill-street, Hanover-square, W., three lives lost Messrs. Hodgkinson's, chemists, and others, four Trinity-lane, Thames-street, large block of buildings, FIRE-WORSHIPPERS. Park theatre. Camden Town, destroyed 10 Sept. 1881 Whiteley's great stores, Westbourne Grove, W., 15 Dec. St. Ann's restaurant and warehouses in Cheapside destroyed St. John's Presbyterian church, Forest-hill, destroyed Another fire at Whiteley's Newnham-street, Edgeware-road, 5 17 Dec. 26 Dec. 16 Jan. 1883 deaths 14 April,,, Messrs. Kegan, Paul, and Co.'s premises, and other buildings (16 firms), Paternoster-square 17 April, Freemason's-hall much injured 3 May, Lunatic asylum, Southall-park, W., Dr. Boyd and 5 others perish 18 Sept. 14 Aug. " Hay warehouses at Foreign-cattle-market, Deptford; damage, about 18,000l. Great fire at Haggerston, beginning at Messrs. Lines, timber merchants, saw mills and eleven small houses destroyed; 40 families homeless 5-9 Nov. Messrs. Silver and Co., premises near Cornhill 17 Jan. 1884 Premises of Messrs. Pardon, printers, &c., Messrs. 11 P.M. A.M. East End Aquarium, menagerie, and waxwork, &c., Bishopsgate, destroyed; lioness, bear, mon. keys, and other animals perish, 8.30 A.M. 4 June, Wapping, Messrs. E. H. Cousens and Co., warehouses and others; damage about 100,000l. 19-20 July.,, Mr. Abrahams, hatter, 33 Wilton-road, Pimlico, 7.45 A.M., 4 deaths 12 Aug. Messrs. Hodgson's envelope manufactory. Little Trinity-lane, destroyed, about 10,000l. loss, 9.45 15 Aug.,, Jones's wharf; great destruction of timber 17 Dec. Holles-street, Clare-market, 4 deaths. 31 Dec. There were 953 fires in 1854; 1113 in 1857; 1114 in 1858 (38 lives lost); 1183 in 1861. 1303 fires in 1862; 1404 in 1863; and 1715 in 1864. In 1866, 1338 fires (326 serious); in 1867, 1397 fires (245 serious); in 1868, 1668 fires (235 serious); in 1869, 1572 fires (199 serious); in 1870, 1946 fires (276 serious); in 1871, 1842 (207 serious); in 1872, 1494 (120 serious); in 1873, 1548 (166 serious: 35 lives lost); in 1874, 1573 (154 serious: 23 lives lost); in 1875, 1668 (163 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1876, 1787 (166 serious: 35 lives lost); in 1877, 1708 (159 serious: 29 lives lost); in 1878, 1659 (170 serious); in 1879, 1718; 1880, 1871 (162 serí ous; 33 lives lost); in 1881, 1991 (167 serious: 40 lives lost); 1882, 1926 (164 serious: 36 lives lost); 1883, 2144 (184 serious: 39 lives lost); 1884, 2,289 (194 serious: 42 lives lost). In but few cases were the premises totally destroyed. Several fires were occasioned by careless use of coal oils in 1861-2. 326 FIRE-WORSHIPPERS: see Parsees. FIRST-FRUITS were offerings which made a large part of the revenues of the Hebrew priesthood. First-fruits (called ANNATES, from annus, a year), in the Roman church, originally the profits of one year of every vacant bishopric, afterwards of every benefice, were first claimed by pope Clement V. in 1306, and were collected in England in 1316: but FISH. chronologers differ on this point. In the 26th of Henry VIII. 1534, the first-fruits were assigned, by parliament, to the king and his successors. Mary gave the Annates to the popes (1555); but Elizabeth resumed them (1559). They were granted, together with the tenths, to the poor clergy, by queen Anne, in 1703. The offices of First-fruits, Tenths, and Queen Anne's Bounty were consolidated by 1 Vict. c. 20, 1838; see Augmentation of Poor Livings. Annates were long resisted in France, but not totally suppressed till 1789. FIRTH COLLEGE: see Sheffield, 1879. FISH, FISHERIES, &c. Laws for the protection of fisheries were enacted by Edward I. in 1284, and by his successors. The rights of the English and French fishermen were defined by treaty in 1839; see Herring, Whale, Newfoundland Fisheries, Oysters, Trawling. The known species of fish are about 7000. Günther, 1871. Fishmongers' company of London (salt) 1433; (stock) 1509; united The Irish Fishery Company formed in In 1860 great progress had been made by M. Coste Commission to examine into British fisheries was In April, Mr. Ponders placed in the Thames 76,000 Fishery board for Scotland established Iuternational fisheries exhibition, South Keusing- International fisheries, Vienna, opened 29 Sept. 10 Nov.) advocated the formation of ponds in |