FRANKS.

in 1850 with capt. M'Clure, returned to HongKong to winter. In 1851 he passed through Prince of Wales's Straits, and remained in the Arctic regions without obtaining any intelligence of Franklin till July, 1854, when, being once more released from the ice, he sailed for Fort Clarence, where he arrived as above mentioned. Captains Collinson and Maguire arrived in England

May, 1855

in 20. The third AMERICAN expedition in search of Dr. Kane, in the Advance, consisted of the Release and the steamer Arctic, the barque Eringo, and another vessel under the command of lieut. H. J. Hartstene, accompanied by a brother of Dr. Kane as surgeon, 31 May, [On 17 May, 1855, Dr. Kane and his party quitted the Advance, and journeyed over the ice, 1300 miles, to the Danish settlement; on their way home in a Danish vessel, they fell in with lieut. Hartstene, 18 Sept.; and arrived with him at New York, 11 Oct. 1855. Dr. Kane visited England in 1856; he died in 1857.]

The Hudson's Bay Company, under advice of Dr. Rae and sir G. Back, sent out an overland expedition, June 1855, which returned Sept. following. Some more remains of Franklin's party were discovered. 21. The 18th British expedition (equipped by lady Franklin and her friends, the government having declined to fit out another)-the Fox, screw steamer, under capt. (since sir F. L. M'Clintock, R. N. (see No. 11)-sailed from Aberdeen 1 July, 1857; returned 22 Sept. 1859 On 6 May, 1859, lieut. Hobson found at Point Victory, near Cape Victoria, besides a cairn, a tin case, containing a paper, signed 25 April, 1848, by capt. Fitzjames, which certified that the ships Erebus and Terror, on 12 Sept. 1846, were beset in lat. 70° 50' N., and long. 98° 23′ W.; that sir John Franklin died 11 June, 1847; and that the ships were deserted 22 April, 1848. Captain M'Clintock continued the search, and discovered skeletons and other relics. His Journal was published in Dec. 1859; and on 28 May, 1860, gold medals were given to him and to lady Franklin by the Royal Geographical Society.

Mr. Hall, the arctic explorer, reported, in Aug. 1865, circumstances that led him to hope that capt. Crozier and others were surviving.

A national monument by Noble, set up in Waterlooplace, was inaugurated, 15 Nov. 1866. It is inscribed to " FRANKLIN the great navigator and his brave companions who sacrificed their lives in completing the discovery of the north-west passage, A.D. 1847-8."

Sir John Franklin discovered the north-west passage by sailing down Peel and Victoria Straits, now named Franklin Straits,

"Franklin search expedition," under lieut. Schwatka, of U.S. navy, in an overland expedition in summer and autumn of 1879, discovers some human remains of the crews of the ships and other things; he set up memorials, and brought away the remains of lieut. John Irving, of the Terror; and returned to Massachusetts about 23 Sept. 1880 Remains of lieut. John Irving buried at Edinburgh,

7 Jan. 1881 FRANKS (or freemen), a name given to a combination of the North-western German tribes about 240, which invaded Gaul and other parts of the empire with various success in the 5th century; see Gaul and France; see Franking.

FRASER'S MAGAZINE, first appeared, Feb. 1830; discontinued Oct. 1882.

FREE CHURCH.

FRAUDULENT TRUSTEES ACT, 20 & 21 Vict. c. 54, passed Aug. 1857, in consequence of the delinquencies of sir John D. Paul, the British Bank frauds, &c. It was brought in by sir R. Bethell, then attorney-general (afterwards lord Westbury), and is very stringent.

FRAUNHOFER'S LINES, see Spectrum. FREDERICKSBURG (Virginia,N.America). On 10 Dec. 1862, general Burnside and the federal army of the Potomac crossed the small deep river Rappahannock. On 11 Dec. Fredericksburg was bombarded by the federals and destroyed. On the 13th commenced a series of desperate unsuccessful attacks on the confederate works, defended by generals Lee, Jackson, Longstreet, and others. General Hooker crossed the river with the reserves, and joined in the conflict, in vain. On 15 and 16 Dec. the federal army recrossed the Rappahannock. The battle was one of the most severe in the war.

FREDERICKSHALD (Norway). Charles XII. of Sweden was killed by a cannon-shot before its walls, while examining the works. His hand was on his sword, and a prayer-book in his pocket, 11 Dec. 1718.

FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND. An Episcopal Church founded in 1844, and enrolled in her majesty's High Court of Chancery in 1863. The bishops are Benjamin Price (bishop primus), who resides at Ilfracombe; Frederick Newinan, at Ashford, Kent; and a missionary bishop, Henry Orion Meyers, at Hounslow.

This church grew out of the Oxford tractarian_movement of 1830. The first church was planted at Bridgetown, Devon, by the rev. James Shore, M.A., curate of the parish; it was built by the duke of Somerset, and opened in 1844. Two other churches were established in the same year-one at Exeter, and the other at Ilfracombe. But it was not till 1849 that much progress was made, when an impetus was given to the movement by the late bishop of Exeter's (Philpott) prosecution of Mr. Shore, for preaching in his diocese without his licence. The work spread, and the organization was enrolled under a deed poll as an “Episcopal Church." But as "Consecration" could not be obtained a bishop president was elected till 1876, when the secession of the right rev. bishop Cummins from the "Protestant Episcopal Church of America" (the first bishops of which church were consecrated by the archbishop of Canterbury at Lambeth Palace chapel, in 1787), af forded an opportunity, which was embraced, of obtaining episcopal consecration for the bishops of the Free Church of England in the Canterbury line of episcopal succession.

The services of the F. C. E. are conducted exactly as those of the evangelical section of the national church, excepting the omission of some words in the offices which express doctrines opposed to the Protestant Reformation.

FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND was formed by an act of secession of nearly half the body from the national church of Scotland, headed by Dr. Thos. Chalmers and other eminent ministers, 18 May, 1843. The difference arose on the question of the right of patrons to nominate to livings; see Patronage. The Free Church claims for the parishioners the right of a veto. Much distress was endured the first year by the ministers of the new church, although 366,719l. 148. 3d. had been subscribed. In 1853 there were 850 congregations; in 1873, 954A large college was founded in 1846. In 1856 the sustentation fund amounted to 108,6387. from which was paid the sum of 1381. each to 700 ministers. The Rev. Mr. Knight, censured for opinions respecting prayer, seceded

22 Oct. 1873 The Reformed Presbyterian Church (see Caseronians), joined the Free Church 25 May, 1876

FREE CHURCH SOCIETY.

Professor Robertson Smith, generally censured for his article " Bible, &c.," in the " Encyclopædia Britannica," 1875, after long consideration by the assembly, admonished only 27 May, 1880 Professor Robertson Smith expelled from his professorship, but to retain salary, by the general assembly (394-231) 26 May, 1881 FREE CHURCH SOCIETY, or National Association for Freedom of Public Worship, established in 1857, to abolish the pew-rent system and revive the weekly offertory to defray the expenses of public worship. The Free and Open Church Association was formed in 1866.

FREE COMPANIES AND LANCES, see Condottieri.

FREEDMEN'S BUREAUS, established in the Southern States of North America in March, 1865, to protect the freed negroes. Having the support of martial law, these bureaus became very oppressive, and the act of congress making them permanent was vetoed by president Johnson in Feb. 1866.

FREEHOLDERS. Those under forty shillings per annum were not qualified to vote for members of parliament by 8 Hen. VI. c. 7, 1429; Various acts have been passed for the regulation of the franchise at different periods. The more recent were, the act to regulate polling, 9 Geo. IV., 1828; act for the disqualification of freeholders in Ireland, which deprived those of forty shillings of this privilege, passed 13 April, 1829; Reform acts, 1832, 1867, 1868. County elections act, 7 Will. IV., 1836.

See Chandos Clause.

FREE HOSPITAL, ROYAL, Gray's Innroad, founded in 1828. Patients admitted without letters. In 1878 Mr. Wm. Birks Rhodes, "the Hounslow miser," bequeathed to the hospital about 39,000l.

FREE LABOUR REGISTRATION SOCIETY, established for the benefit of employers and non-unionist workmen, in opposition to trades' unions, about July, 1867.

FREE LIBRARIES, see Libraries. FREEMASONRY. Writers on masonry, themselves masons, affirm that it has had a being "ever since symmetry began, and harmony displayed her charms." It is traced by some to the building of Solomon's temple; and it is said the architects from the African coast, Mahometans, brought it into Spain, about the 9th century. Its introduction into Britain has been fixed at 674; and in Scotland 1140. Many of our Gothic cathedrals are attributed to freemasons. The grand lodge at York was founded 926. Freemasonry was interdicted in England, 1424. In 1717, the grand lodge of England was established; that of Ireland in 1730; and that of Scotland in 1736. Freemasons were excommunicated by the pope in 1738; again condemned, 30 Sept. 1865. Freemasons' Hall, Great Queen-street, London, built 1771; rebuilt, and consecrated 14 April, 1869. Partly burnt, 3 May, 1883. The charity instituted, 1788. The duke of Sussex and the earl of Zetland were each twenty-five years grand-master of England. Earl de Grey, afterwards marquis of Ripon, was installed grand-master of the English freemasons in room of the earl of Zetland, 14 May, 1870. The marquis (on becoming a Romanist) resigned I Sept. 1874. He was succeeded by the prince of Wales; installed in the Royal Albert Hall, 28 April, 1875. The duke of Leinster, grand

master for Ireland for 60 years, died 10 Oct. 1874: succeeded by the duke of Abercorn. The prince of Wales was installed at Edinburgh as patron of the freemasons of Scotland, 12 Oct. 1870. As grandmaster past and present of the mark masons, London, 8 Dec. 1883. Prince Leopold installed as held by sir Christopher Wren), 25 June, 1879. master of the "lodge of antiquity" (at one time Royal Masonic Institutions: for girls (Battersea),

1842

founded 1788; for boys (Wood Green), 1798; for the aged and widows FREETHINKERS, professors of natural religion; see Deists.

FREE TRADE principles, advocated by Adam Smith in his Wealth of Nations" (1776), triumphed in England when the corn laws were abolished in 1846, and the commercial treaty with France was adopted in 1860. Richard Cobden, who was very instrumental in passing these measures, and termed "Apostle of Free Trade," died 2 April, 1865. Since 1830 the exports have been tripled. See French Treaty. An agitation for free trade has begun in the United States. A reform league was formed at Boston, 20 April, 1869; and the movesince continued. A free-trade budget was brought ment became active in New York in Nov., and has in by the ministry in Sydney in 1873. A new freetrade league was inaugurated in London in Dec. 1873; and one at Melbourne, Australia, Sept. 1876. Free trade warmly advocated in New South Wales, in Victoria, Australia, 1877-80. Much agitation supported in New Zealand; opposed in Canada and against free-trade in 1880-2. See Fair Trade. American Free Trade League formed at Detroit, June, 1883. Protection dominant in Europe, Feb. 1885.

FREEZING, see Congelation, and Ice. "FREIHEIT," German newspaper. Trials, 1881.

See

FRENCH ASSOCIATION FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF THE SCIENCES was established

by the general assembly, 22 April, 1872, its chief founders being MM. Balard, Claude Bernard, Delaunay, Dumas, Pasteur, Berthelot, Würtz, and others. It held its first meeting at Bordeaux, 5 Sept. 1872, when many foreign scientific men were present, M. De Quatrefages, president; second, Lyons, 21 Aug. 1873; third, Lille, 20 Aug. 1874; fourth, Nantes, 19 Aug. 1875; fifth, Clermont Ferrand, 19 Aug. 1876; sixth, Havre, 30 Aug. 1877; seventh, Paris, 22 Aug. 1878; eighth, Montpellier, 28 Aug. 1879; ninth, Rheims, 11 Aug. 1880; tenth, Algiers, 14 April, 1881; La Rochelle, 23 Aug. 1882; Rouen, 17 Aug. 1883; Blois, 3 Sept. 1884.

FRENCH CHURCH, see Church of France. FRENCH LANGUAGE is mainly based on the rude Latin of the western nations subjugated by the Romans. German was introduced by the Franks in the 8th century. In the 9th the GalloRomanic dialect became divided into the Langue d'oc of the south and the Langue d'oil of the north. The dialect of the Isle of France became predominant in the 12th century. The French language as written by Froissart assimilates more to the modern French, and its development was almost completed when the Académie Française (established by Richelieu in 1634) published a dictionary of the language in 1674. The French language, laws, and customs were introduced into England by William I., 1066. Law pleadings were changed from French to English in the reign of Edward III., 1362. Stow.

1483 1553

Thierry Béranger

Chanson de
Roland
Roman d'
Alexandre
R. Wace Ro-
man de Brut
Roman de la
Rose
Villehardouin

PRINCIPAL FRENCH AUTHORS.

Born Died

11th century. Mariontel

12th century. | Delille.

1160 1213 Joinville. 1223 1319 • 1333 1410

Froissart
Monstrelet about 1390 1453

Comines

Marot

Rabelais

1445 1509 Augustin

1732 1799

Floréal.

Prairial

1723 1799

1773 1807

FRIENDLY ISLES.

SPRING.

Sprouts' month, 21 Mar. to 19 April. Flowers' mouth, 20 April to 19 May.

Pasture month, 20 May to 18 June.

SUMMER.

Harvest month, 19 June to 18 July

1737 1814

1766 1817

Fruit month

1786 1853

The Virtues

Genius

Labour

Opinion

L'Opinion

Les Récompenses

Rewards

18 Sept. . 19 Sept. . 20 Sept. . 21 Sept.

FRENCHTOWN (Canada), was taken from the British by the American general Winchester, 22 Jan. 1813, during the second war with the United States of America. It was retaken by the British forces under general Proctor, 24 Jan., and the American commander and his troops were made prisoners.

FRENCH TREATY, the term given to the treaty of commerce between Great Britain and France, signed 23 Jan. 1860, at Paris, by lord Cowley and Richard Cobden and by the ministers MM. Baroche and Rouher. The beneficial results of this treaty compensated for the depression of trade occasioned by the civil war in North America (1861-5). The French assembly determined that on 15 March, 1871, this treaty should cease in 12 months from that date. A fresh treaty was signed at Paris 29 Jan. 1873. Free trade was somewhat restricted, but the new French navigation law was relaxed. Negotiations for a new treaty began in London, 26 May, 1881. See France, 1881-2.

FRESCO PAINTINGS are executed on plaster while fresh. Very ancient ones exist in Egypt, Italy, and England, and modern ones in the British houses of parliament, at Berlin, and other places. The fresco paintings by Giotto and others at the Campo Santo, a cemetery at Pisa, executed in the 13th century, are justly celebrated. See Stereochromy.

FRESHWATER FISH, see Fish.

FRÈTEVAL (Central France). Here Richard I. of England defeated Philip II. of France, and captured his royal seal, archives, &c., 15 July, 1194. Frèteval was taken by the Germans, 14 Dec., 1870, and soon abandoned.

FRIARS (from the French frère, a brother); see Minorites, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, and other orders.

FRIDAY, the sixth day of the week; so called from Friga, or Frea, the Scandinavian Venus, the wife of Thor, and goddess of peace, fertility, and riches, who with Thor and Odin composed the supreme council of the gods. See Good Friday.

FRIEDLAND (Prussia). Here the allied Russians and Prussians were beaten by the French, commanded by Napoleon, on 14 June, 1807. The allies lost eighty pieces of cannon and about 18,000 men; the French about 10,000 men. The peace of Tilsit followed, by which Prussia was obliged to surrender nearly half her dominions.

FRIENDLY ISLES, in the Southern Pacific, consist of a group of more than 150 islands, forming an archipelago of very considerable extent. These islands were discovered by Tasman, in 1643; visited by Wallis, who called them Keppel Isles, 1767; and by captain Cook, who named them on account of the friendly disposition of the natives,

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES.

1773. Subsequent voyagers describe them as very ferocious.

FRIENDLY SOCIETIES, which originated in the clubs of the industrious classes, were subjected to slight control in 1793, and have been regulated by various enactments. Other acts were passed in 1855, 1858 and 1860; important ones, 11 Aug. 1875, 24 July, 1876 and 1882 In London, the Defoe Friendly Society dates from 1687; the Norman, 1703; the Lintot, 1708.

FRIENDS, see Quakers, and under Clergy. FRIENDS OF THE PEOPLE, an association formed in London to obtain parliamentary reform,

1792.

FRIESLAND: EAST (N. Germany), the ancient Frisia, formerly governed by its own counts. On the death of its prince Charles Edward, in 1744, it became subject to the king of Prussia; Hanover disputed its possession, but Prussia prevailed. It was annexed to Holland by Bonaparte, in 1806, to the French empire, 1810; and awarded to Hanover in 1815. The English language is said to be mainly derived from the old Frisian dialect.-FRIESLAND, WEST, in Holland, was part of Charlemagne's empire in 800. It passed under the counts of Holland about 936, and was one of the seven provinces which renounced the Spanish yoke in 1580. The term Chevaux de Frise (or Cheval de Frise, a Friesland Horse) is derived from Friesland, where it was invented."

FRIULI (Venetia), made a duchy by Alboin the Lombard, when he established his kingdom about 570. It was conquered by Charlemagne. Henri, a Frenchman, made duke, was assassinated in 799, which was the fate of duke Berengarius, king of Italy and emperor, in 924. The emperor Conrad gave the duchy to his chancellor Poppo, patriarch of Aquileia, in the 11th century; it was conquered by Venice in 1420; annexed to Austria, 1797; to France, 1805; to Austria, 1814; to Italy,

1866.

FROBISHER'S STRAITS, discovered by sir Martin Frobisher, who tried to find a northwest passage to China, and after exploring the coast of New Greenland, entered this strait, II Aug. 1576. He returned to England, bringing with him a quantity of black ore, supposed to contain gold, which induced queen Elizabeth to patronise a second voyage. This led to a third fruitless expedition. He was mortally wounded at Brest, Nov. 1594.

FROEBEL SOCIETY, established to promote the Kindergarten system (which see), 1874; annual meeting, 18 Jan. 1884.

FROGMORE, near Windsor, Berks. A house here, built by Nash, was the residence of queen Charlotte and afterwards of the duchess of Kent. Here is situate the mausoleum of the late prince consort.

See Albert,

FROHSDORF, a village near Vienna, lately the residence of the comte de Chambord, see France, 1873.

FRONDE, CIVIL WARS OF THE, in France, in the minority of Louis XIV. (1648-52), during the government of queen Anne of Austria and cardinal Mazarin, between the followers of the court and the nobility, and the parliament and the citizens. The latter were called Frondeurs (slingers), it is said, from an incident in a street quarrel. In a riot on 27 Aug. 1648, barricades were erected in Paris.

FROST'S INSURRECTION.

Charles X. of Sweden crossed the Little-Belt over the ice from Holstein to Denmark, with his whole army

1622

1658

The forest trees, and even the oaks in England, split by the frost; most of the hollies were killed; the Thames covered with ice eleven inches thick; and nearly all the birds perished, Dec. 1683-Feb. 1684 "The people kept trades on the Thames as in a fair, till 4 Feb. 1684. About forty coaches daily plied on the Thames as on drye land. Bought this book at a shop upon the ice in the middle of the Thames." Entry in the memoranda of a Citizen.

The wolves, driven by the cold, entered Vienna, Three months' frost, with heavy snow, from Dec.

and attacked cattle and men

continued.

1691 to March 1709

A fair held on the Thames, and oxen roasted; frost 24 Nov. to 9 Feb. 1716 One lasted 9 weeks, when coaches plied upon the Thames, and festivities and diversions of all kinds were enjoyed upon the ice. (The hard winter ")

From 25 Dec. to 16 Jan. and from 18 to 22 Jan.; 1740

most terrible

1766

One general throughout Europe; the Thames passable opposite the Custom House Nov. to Jan. 1789 One from 24 Dec. 1794, to 14 Feb. 1795, with the intermission of one day's thaw Intense frosts

23 Jan. 1795 all Dec. 1796 . 1812

Severe frost in Russia Very destructive to the French army in its retreat from Moscow. Napoleon commenced his retreat on the 9th Nov. The men perished in battalions, and the horses fell by hundreds on the roads. France lost in the campaign of this year more than 400,000 men.

Booths erected on the Thames; the winter very severe in Ireland

Jan. 1814

The frosts so intense in parts of Norway, that

quicksilver freezes, and persons exposed to the atmosphere lose their breath

Very severe frost in London, 14 Jan. to

2 Jan. 1849 24 Feb.;

and very cold weather up to 26 June On 22 Feb. fires were made on the Serpentine, Hyde Park. A traffic on the ice of 35 miles long, was established in Lincolnshire

.

1855

"

FRUCTIDOR CONSTITUTION.

Apple, custard, N. America
Apple, osage, ditto

Apricots, Epirus

Cherry-trees, Pontus

Cherries, Flanders

Cornelian cherry, Austria.

Currant, the hawthorn, Canada

Fig-tree, S. Europe, before Gooseberries, Flanders, before

Grapes, Portugal

Lemons, Spain

Limes, Portugal, about

1520 1596

1629

• 1754

1652

• 1730

*

*

1568

1525

1522 1548

. 1573 . 1796 1696

• 1530

. 1724 1629

FUCHSIA, an American plant named after the German botanist Leonard Fuchs, about 1542. The Fuchsia fulgens, the most beautiful variety, was introduced from Mexico, about 1830.

FUEL, see Coal, Bogs. In the autumn of 1873, it was announced that Louis Rayneckers, a French peasant, had discovered that earth mixed with coal and a little soda made good fuel.

FUENTES DE ONORO (central Spain). On 2 May, 1811, Massena crossed the Agueda with 40,000 infantry, 5000 horse, and about 30 pieces of artillery, to relieve Almeida. He expected every day to be superseded in his command, and wished to make a last effort for his own military character. Wellington could muster no more than 32,000 men, of which only 1200 were cavalry. He however determined to fight rather than give up the blockade of Almeida. After much fighting, on 3 May, night came on and stopped the conflict. Next day Massena was joined by Bessières with a body of the Imperial guard; and on 5 May, made his grand attack. In all the war there was not a more dangerous hour for England. The fight lasted until evening, when the lower part of the town was abandoned by both parties-the British maintaining the chapel and crags, and the French retiring a cannon-shot from the stream. Napier.

FÜESSEN, Bavaria. By a treaty signed here, 22 April, 1745, peace was made between Maria Theresa, queen of Hungary, and the elector of Bavaria, the latter renouncing his claim to the imperial crown and recovering his lost territories.

FULFORD, Yorkshire. Here Harold Hardrada of Norway, and Tostig, brother of Harold of England, defeated the earls Edwin and Morcar, 20 Sept. 1066; and the people near York submitted to them; see Stamford-bridge.

FULLER CASE, see India, 1876.

FUMIGATION. Acron, a physician of Agrigentum, is said to have first caused great fires to be lighted and aromatics to be thrown into them to purify the air, and thus to have stopped the plague at Athens and other places in Greece, about 473 B.C.

FUNDS, see Stocks, and Sinking Fund.

FUNERALS. David lamented over Saul and Jonathan, 1056 B.C., and over Abner, 1048 B.C. 2 Sam. i. and iii. In Greece, Solon was the first who pronounced a funeral oration, according to Herodotus, 580 B.C. The Romans pronounced harangues over their illustrious dead. Theopompus obtained a prize for the best Funeral Oration in praise of Mausolus, 353 B.C. Popilia was the first Roman lady who had an oration pronounced at her funeral, which was done by her son, Crassus; and it is observed by Cicero that Julius Cæsar did the like for his aunt Julia and his wife Cornelia.Funeral Games, among the Greeks and Romans included horse-races, dramatic representations, processions, and mortal combats of gladiators. These games were abolished by the emperor Claudius, A.D. 47. A tax was laid on funerals in England, 1793.

Church of England Funeral and Mourning Reform Association, founded at Sheffield, by earl Nelson and others 5 Oct. 1878

See Burials.